By Caleb "Oz" Musgrave

This article is not meant to explain how to make every shelter out there. Nor is it supposed to be used as a guide as to how to build a specific shelter. The only way to know how to truly build a shelter is to research it and then practise it, with experimentation (better known as failure and new ideas). In other words; don't think you know how to drive a car just because you read the owners' manual.

 

This is an overview of several types of shelters, made from both natural and man-made materials. It also is written to help explain how shelter works, to impress on the reader the basics of what is needed to make a shelter and therefore allow the reader to experiment with a bit more success.

 

Shelter is nothing more then an extension of clothing, in the simplest way of looking at it. It is meant to protect the human body from the five forms of hypothermia -Conduction, radiation, perspiration/precipitation, convection and respiration-, and allow the body to remain away from the elements which may harm it (heat, insects, cold, wet and so on).

 

Though there are shelters from all over the world which may do these jobs differently (such as a Tropical shelter), this article is going to focus on the temperate forests, specifically Carolinian and Boreal/Taiga forests. In this region, there are four seasons, spanning from thirty degrees above zero (celsius) all the way to fifty degrees below zero. Summers can be hot with swarms of blackflies and mosquitoes, whereas winter can be frididly cold, with swift winds carrying windchills that can cause severe frostbite in seconds.

 

There are many schools of thought when it comes to what type of shelter to use. Some preach the concept of basic shelters that can quickly be erected in dire circumstances. This would be a "survival-oriented shelter" such as a basic debris hut. Others suggest that a more complex shelter is better when comfort and space are important. This of course is the concept behind a bushcraft shelter or what is often labelled a "Long-term survival shelter". There is no point in trying to make a large shelter when you need one immediately. It will require a great deal of building materials, and take quite a lot of time to construct. Better to make a simple, small, easily heated shelter. Vice verse if you have been in the woods for a long period, a small shelter just doesn't seem adequate. After a few days of constant rain, laying down inside a small cramped shelter for the entire time will drive anyone crazy. The better choice is to make a shelter large enough to sit up in, lounge in, and perhaps even stand up (albeit bent over or crouching). This allows the occupant the chance to work on projects, stretch muscles and -if done safely- use a small fire or hot rocks to heat the inside of the shelter. In a survival situation, it is best to make a small shelter first, to have immediate protection from the elements. If the period in the woods lasts longer than three days, then a wise idea is to remain in the small shelter while a larger shelter is built. Once completed, the survivor can move into this larger "home" and not once had to spent a night exposed to the elements. 

 

Some people suggest the use of natural materials for a shelter, while others argue that man-made materials are more effective. The arguments coem from two different concepts, though both are right and neither are wrong. Using natural shelters does away with the need of carrying shelter materials with you. Often a natural shelter will be warmer, due to thermal mass (explained later in the article), and of course, if left alone will return to nature. As well, the natural materials will blend in with the environment, allowing a less obvious presence. However, a natural shelter often takes a great deal of material to build, and if not enough material is used, will get the occupant soaked. It also takes longer -usually- to make a natural materials shelter. On the other end of the spectrum, man-made materials can be easily erected within minutes rather than hours. As well, the majority of these types of shelters are water and weatherproof. However, these shelters are rarely effective for cold weather, though there are always exceptions to the rule. As well, if you lose or damage the materials, and have no experience repairing it or cannot replace it, you are now stuck with only being able to use natural materials. Due to that, this article will discuss both natural shelters and man-made shelters.   

 

 

Conduction -in the hypothermia sense- is when an object absorbs heat from another object. Simply put, a rock, ice or the bare ground will absorb heat from the human body and cause the body to become chilled. This can be tested by resting against a brick wall on a cold day. Though you may be out of the wind (convection), your back and buttocks will feel cold. Eventually the entire body will feel cold as well. This would obviously not be a good thing in a wilderness setting, and this is often why campers carry sleeping mats or pads with them. This will keep the ground from absorbing your body heat and chilling you. As well, cold air sinks, and due to that, the air nearest the ground will often be very cold. The air can be much warmer only a few inches from the ground. This is why a bed is often much sought after in a shelter. As well, the ground for many parts of the year will be wet. Moisture (precipitation/perspiration) will chill the body quickly, and can often effect the insulative value of many clothing fabrics. Again, a simpel bed can prevent this from happening. Some beds are easily made quickly, by laying down a thick pile of boughs, grass or any other insulative materials. The bed should be at least a metre thick when uncompressed and be at least fifteen centimetres (six inches) thick when compressed. This will often do, but sometimes the movement of the occupant will displace the materials, thinning it out and making the bed less and less comfortable throughout the night, causing sore joints, and of course exposing the body to the cold wet ground again.

 

 

A better means of making the bed is to build up a frame of logs or poles. Two logs at least a shoulder width apart are laid down. Inside of this, a core of shrubbery, poles or branches is stuffed, and the basic bough bed is built on top. This "core bed" takes only a few minutes longer to set up and can last much longer. It is also more comfortable to sit and lay on, making the occupant's sleep much better. Another option is to take two logs that are half an armspan long. The space between these two logs should be long enough to allow the occupant to lay their head and foot on the logs. Now long, wrist thick poles are set across these logs, resembling a primitive bench. This bed acts similar to a box-spring, and due to being hollow offers storage space and even room for hot rocks to heat the occupant from below. Often called the platform bed, this is probably the most advanced of wilderness beds out there for long-term living.

Another option is to dig a trench twenty centimetres deep, and hip-to-shoulder long. Build a fire within this and let it burn for at least two hours. Once it has been effectively burned and all of the woods has burned down to coals, break the coals into small pieces and cover with at least ten centimetres of dirt. Pack the dirt tight and check to make sure no heat has come through yet. Every few minutes check with your hand to see if the ground has warmed yet. If it warms up before twenty minutes, place more dirt on it. After twenty minutes, the heat will slowly come out, and offer the occupant a source of warmth, cancelling out the worry of conduction from the ground. The heat will have baked out a great deal of the moisture in the ground, though a vapour barrier is wise. A basic bough bed can be built atop of this, or the occupant can sleep on the "fire bed" directly.

Once the bed has been made, shelter from the elements can be made by a roof and walls. In cold weather, a fire can be included with an open-front shelter such as a lean-to, or body heat can be trapped inside a shelter that is made of materials which have a great deal of thermal mass. What is thermal mass? In simple terms, thermal mass is basically insulation. This can be achieved with leaf litter, boughs, and logs and even dirt. The thicker the walls and roof of a shelter are, the less cold and weather can penetrate through. As well, the thicker the walls and roof, the more heat is kept inside. This is the basic principle of thermal mass and the basic principle behind the debris hut.

 

A debris hut is a framework of sticks and poles, with a cover of leaf litter, moss or other forest refuse (debris) which is thickly piled up. A minimum thickness of the debris cover should be an arm length. However, in colder weather the cover should be at least an arm length and a half. The thicker the cover the warmer it will be insde. The most well known debris hut is the A-frame. Simply a tripod with one extra long leg, and covered with sticks, shrubbery and debris, this shelter is nothing more than a glorified sleeping bag. However in survival circumstances, this is the most effective and efficient means of staying warm and dry. This shelter can be made small enough for one person or large enough to shelter four people. The long leg of the tripod is the main body of the shelter, whereas the two shorter legs form the entrance. The door can be left open to recieve heat from a fire, or closed off.

 

 

 

 

The A-frame debris hut can be advanced however to offer better luxury for a lone occupant or made to shelter seven or eight occupants. A large A-frame shelter is made, large enough to shelter three or four people. Once this frame is completed, another A-frame shelter, whose entrance is facing the first shelters' entrance is connected to it. The two entrances will be joined and walled off so that no weather can effect the shelter. A small entranceway can be made perpendicular to the length of the shelter. In this way, a large shelter can be made to fend off all of the elements, yet leave enough room for one or two people to live comfortably within it. The space between the two A-frames should be cleared and slightly dug down. This can be left as is to "trap" cold air before it gets to the occupants. Or, if the occupants wish for more warmth, hot rocks can be carefully place within the cold air trap, to radiate more warmth within the debris hut. 

(Below Photo; Author and two students outside of an Advanced Debris Hut which the students spent 7 days living out of. Note the side entrance. Photo by Ciara Pisano)

 

Another debris hut design is actuallt more often known about from the Southwestern United States of American. The wickiup is a tepee or arch-dome shelter covered with grass thatch or leaf litter. If thickly covered enough with debris, the wickiup is now "winterized" and transformed into a "Northern Wickiup". The easiest manner of constructing the wickiup is to make a tripod out of sturdy poles. Add more poles until a tepee frame has been made. A small entrance-way is left open, while the rest of the frame is continually piled on with more poles, branches, shrubbery and other dense materials. Once a solid frame has been made, piles upon piles of leaf litter are covered over the entire frame. Make the walls thick with debris until the entire frame looks like a huge leaf pile. The entrance-way can be closed off with a woven door, a "plug" made from a large pile of leaves, or left open and heated with a fire from outside. The Northern Wickiup is efficient at shedding rain, and due to it's conical form is very strong, being able to withstand hundreds of pounds of snow on it. The space inside allows the occupant to sit up, lay down, stretch and do anything else needed for comfort. 

 

 

 

Almost all survival and wilderness skills texts discuss the Lean-to. A ridgepole is suspended between two trees or two tripods. Down one side several poles are laid at a forty-five degree angle or steeper. Atop of this, boughs, thatching, tarpaulins or simply more and more poles are covered. Debris can also be used. In front of this, a fire is made, and a bed made inside. The lean-to roof sheds the majority of the weather, while also reflecting the radiant heat of the fire back to the student. A platform bed can be added to the construction of the lean-to to create an efficient sleeping arrangement. The downfall to this shelter focuses primarily on the fact that if any weather that does come through changes direction, the occupant is exposed to it. As well, the majority of the heat will escape by simply following the lean-to roof upwards. However, if modern materials are included, the lean-to can be extremely versatile. A simple poncho or tarpaulin strung up like a lean-to can be set up in as little as three minutes. If the tarpaulin is actually a Mylar space tarp, any body heat or radiant heat from the fire will reflect back onto the occupant. 

A similar design to the lean-to is a simple windbreak or reflector log shelter. Often the occupant is exposed to any precipitation that may fall, as well, most of the heat of the occupant can be lost (via radiation). However, if the occupant is wearing efficient rainproof clothing, and has a large fire in front of them, the Windbreak shelter can be effective enough. Simple logs stacked one ontop of another, and chinked with dirt, stones and/or leaf litter, the wall can shed some of the harshest winds, which could chill the occupant to death (via convection).

 

(Above Photo; The Windbreak/Reflector Log Shelter with fire and firewall. Photo by Chris Caine)

 

 

Arch Dome shelters are probably one of the most comfortable dwellings in the wilderness. Ironically they are also one of the most difficult to find appropriate coverings for. Made by implanting the thick ends of saplings into the ground and bending them -two at a time- into arches. Two saplings lashed or woven together at their apex will make a sturdy arch. From this, a circular or lengthened shelter can be contructed. Repeat the arch, making at least eight arches (either all in a row like a tunnel, or in a circle like a dome). Starting at the bottom, and working upwards, horzontal poles are woven in and out either pushing or pulling the vertical arches until the entire frame is a balanced and equal shape. This sounds like a perfectionist, but the better shaped the frame is, the more effective it will be at shedding rain and resisting the weather.

 

A short time after gathering the poles, this frame can be completed (two hours for a large shelter, less than an hour for a smaller shelter). The real challenge will be trying to cover it. Woven mats, made from long grass, reed or cattails (typha) can be used. Thatching the dome shelter with similar materials can also work. However, both of these methods are only good for the sides of the arch dome. Past sixty degrees incline, any rainfall will penetrate the thatching effortlessly, leaving the occupants drenched. Shingles made from bark, split cedar shingles (easiest wood to split in the Canadian woods) or strips of animal skins can be attached on the top of the arch dome shelter. These materials will shed rain much better. If bark is in great quantity covering the entire arch dome shelter can make the dwelling effectively rainproof. Other than birchbark however, the bark shingles will not be long-term solutions for roofing. Ojibway, Micmaq and Ottawa natives made wigwams using this process, and later traded for canvas, muslin and other fabrics to cover their lodges. 

 

Covering this frame with modern tarpaulins allows for a great deal of water protection. Parachute nylon can be laid over the poles prior to placing the tarpaulins on. This helps to cut down on condensation (the nylon wicks away water vapour). An elevated platform bed inside of this shelter can increase on the comfort. Lining the ceiling of the shelter with a mylar space tarp, the body heat will continue to reflect back down to the occupant. The door can be simply the rest of the tarp that is covering the roof, or a clear plastic tarp. Clear plastic allows radiant heat to pass through, whether this may be from a fire or from the sun. However, wind, rain, smoke and insects cannot pass through it. Setting up this shelter with a large fire a metre away from the entrance can then heat the shelter; making the inside of the shelter very warm even in sub-zero temperatures. This design of a shelter is basically the perfect blend of natural materials (platform bed, arched poles, etc) with modern materials (tarpaulin, clear plastic, parachute nylon, etc) allowing the occupant to live in almost lavish comfort. This design was originally developed by Canadian wilderness expert Mors Kochanski, and is often known as the "Kochanski Super Shelter".

(Above Photo; Inside of a Kochanski super shelter which the author lived in for several weeks straight)   

 

To help with any of these shelter designs, there are always modifications which can better the shelter for the specific occupant. Each person is made differently and due to that their comfort levels may be different. Remember; in a survival situation comfort should be the last thing on the survivor's mind. However, in a long-term wilderness living setting a good nights' sleep can be invaluable to your longevity. Research the terrain in which one would be living off the land, and begin experimenting with shelters. Being both educational and enjoyable.

 

Chris Caine photos provided by http://chriscainesurvival.com/