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Canadian Bushcraft Articles.
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Beds
Author :: Caleb Musgrave
Date :: Thu 01/05/2012 @ 04:32
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Different forms of bed
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In a previous article of mine (Issue No. 5) we discussed the variety of roofing materials common to Temperate North America. Now that we have a roof over our heads, let us focus on the subject of what to sleep on. There are countless varieties of beds out there for the wilderness wanderer. From hammocks and cots, to closed-cell sleeping pads, the market is flooded with everything you could desire. However many of these things can be forgotten at home, damaged or worst off, lost. The woods wanderer should know how to make an efficient bed before going off into the wilderness. We will cover the Bough Bed, the Core Bed and the Deluxe Bed, the Mountain man Bed, and many other variations.
Please note that throughout this article, the term "bough" refers to green evergreen branches covered in needles, such as spruce, pine and fir. However, wherever this term is used, one can substitute a myriad of bedding materials. Grasses, sedges, cattail, reeds, hardwood leaves, and even lichen covered dead branches will all do a decent job. Please experiment with bedding materials in different landscapes until you have become proficient at using multiple resources to make a good night of sleep possible.
The Simple Bough Bed
Gather between seventy and one hundred boughs. The boughs selected should not have branches thicker than the thumb, and should include a large amount of thin boughs. Starting with the thickest boughs, begin laying down a platform. This platform should be as wide as your shoulders, plus two or three handspans. It should also be longer than your height by a few handspans. The use of the thickest boughs closest to the ground and furthest from you is in a sense a lot like a box-spring mattress. This will form a stable platform which will help elevate you away from the uneven, cold, wet ground.
On top of this start laying down boughs from head to toe. After much experiment you may notice the most comfortable bed exists from taking two boughs or more in each hand at a time, and laying them on angles so that their thin tips meet in the center of the bed. Their butts should point to the sides of the bed at a forty-five degree angle. A simpler way of describing how this should look, is the chevrons on military rank insignias. (Photo 1, The SImple Bough bed)
Once a layer has gone from head to toe, begin again at the head with the next softest material. As the bed takes form, the seventy to one hundred boughs will seem to deplete slowly at first, but within moments of work, it will be obvious that this amout is needed to make the bed comfortable. The best height for any natural mattress is to a compressed height of more than four inches. When uncompressed, this could be up to waist high, depending on the materials used.
The beauty of the simple bough bed is that for the most part, it is the fastest bed made in the field. Though the gathering of materials seems to take a long time, if a good stand of trees is present, a bough bed can be knocked together in less than half an hour, including the gathering of materials. For many of the other beds, this acts as the top layer of which the occupant sleeps upon.
The Core bed
Used as a frame to get the occupant away from saturated snow, or wet muddy ground. The bed is made of two stout logs (though rotted logs can do in a pinch) that are longer than the height of the occupant. Spread the logs out approximately a shoulder's width apart. Fill the space between these two logs with long spindly poles, or thumb thick brush, until no compression is possible to make the stuffed material go lower than the tops of the logs. On top of this, a mattress is made in a similar fashon to the Simple Bough Bed. The efficiency of a Core Bed, is that the core can be made of many different materials, that otherwise would not work as a platform for a bed. If the bough mattress on top is thick enough, a core bed could be made out of snow, and function well enough. If the logs on each side are thick enough, and the mattress on top is thick enough, a core made of snow will not melt out from under the occupant, even from a hot fire. Another bonus, is now the woods wanderer can sit up a bit, and embrace the warmth of a fire.
The Deluxe bed
An advancement in comfort. This is one of the more complicated frames, and is also the frame which a Stick Hammock is arranged upon. Find between fifteen and twenty poles that are wrist thick and as tall as the woods wander can reach without getting on tiptoes. Set these aside as the frame is made. Put two logs down that are a foot or so longer than the shoulders are wide. Make sure they are just further apart than the occupant is tall. On top of these, stack two logs that are long enough to overlap the base logs. On top of these, two more logs are stacked that are shoulder width apart, plus a foot. This should look like a very narrow log cabin when completed. Jam-knots, or grooves cut into the logs with an axe or saw may be needed to hold it all in place.
On top of this framework, stack out the wrist thick poles evenly into a platform. This platform should be level with, or just an inch higher than the occupant's knees. Once completed, add a bough bed mattress. This bed is one of the most comfortable to make in the field, and works under a lean-to, or inside of an enclosed shelter. It can be used as a bench during the day, and slept upon at night. A pillow can be made by stuffing a small bundle of twigs under the head-end of the mattress. The real benefit of this bed comes in the cold hours of the night, when the heat of the fire can radiate from below the mattress and rise up below the occupant. This empty space belpw is a good place to stow axes, saws and shovels. It if is really cold out (-40 for instance), rolling hot rocks into this empty space will definitely help to stave off the chills.
The Mountain Man Bed
The Mountain Man bed is an advancement of the Core bed. However, it is also a shelter of sorts, and a blanket. First off, make the log framework as mentioned for the Core Bed. Make sure the logs are perpendicular or ninety degrees to the prevailing winds. The log on the windward side of the bed should be stacked with a wall approximately waist high. The stacked wall is akin to the reflector wall used by many people with open fires. Chink any and all spaces between these logs with leaf litter. Now, fill the core with debris. Dead pine needles and sagebrush make a good bedding for the mountain man bed, but boughs, grasses and other materials will all do. Pack this pile of debris densely, until it is higher than the bed logs. Now pile more leaf litter on top, loosely.
The core of the bed will do the job as the platform and main insulation. The stacked log wall will deflect wind, while the loosely packed leaves will act as a sleeping bag which can be crawled inside of. This shelter is not rain proof, but is the start of a very efficient, and quickly set up. Students of our programs have set these shelters up in less then a half hour, and merely rolled up in a tarp to stay dry, while others stay comfortable in their rain clothes and slept the night through downpours.
The Stick Hammock
The Stick Hammock is an advancement of the Deluxe Bed, where no mattress is needed. Upon making the frame, Place a third shoulder-wide log where the back of the knees will rest. Once this is complete make the platform. However this time use poles much longer, and thinner, approximately thumb-thick. These poles ought to be alive, or dry hardwood. There should be twenty-five or thirty of these poles. Lash their ends to the main logs with Jam-knots if possible.
The true beauty of this bed, is that it offers the same comforts a hammock can, though much cruder. The log behind the knees helps to support the body as it hangs, resting on the poles which bend under the weight of the occupant. This does not require a mattress, but it airflow under the bed must be warm, as convection can chill in the Stick Hammock, just as quickly as in a real hammock. An open fire does great, as well as wind breaks. This bed is most suited for inside an enclosed shelter, such as a wigwam or supershelter.
Conclusion
Beds made of natural materials are astounding in their efficiency. It is truly a wonder why we ever moved on to modern materials for a bed. Students on courses in some of the coldest weather Canada can offer have stated incredible comfort in their natural shelters, sleeping on natural beds. The trick to it, is to experiment as frequently as possible, with numerous materials. The bed styles listed are a small fraction of the varieties that are possible in the field. There are some safety precautions that should be made. Be aware of which way the wind is blowing any smoke and sparks. Beds made of natural materials can act as a tinder bundle, and have gone up in flames within seconds. So be safe when using a bed near a fire! Other then that, trial and error will be the best guides for constructing an efficient bed in the wilds.
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The poetry of a Billycan
Author :: Caleb Musgrave
Date :: Tue 09/20/2011 @ 05:27
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What's in a pot? That which we call a billycan, by any other name would make coffee just as well...
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Author with his favourite billycan getting ready for lunch (Photo by John Brown)
Many people focus on the cutting implements when it is time to think about gear in the wilderness. They are the glamorous go with you anywhere item, which many will spend great deals of money on. It is almost like a knife to a woodsman is their interpretation of fast cars and pricey jewelry. High quality equipment is what everyone to some degree or another desires. Some spend a great deal of money to possess such items. Whereas others will learn to make their own. Both routes are right, and so are the other varied methods of getting good gear. However one item is always forgotten when the knife discussion arises. That is the billycan. The term billycan originates in Australia, where Aboriginal words blended with settler slang to create an Outback jargon. The word Billycan refers to a cooking pot (often a reused can) used to boil water (retrieved from billabongs). The word Billycan -along with the term Bushcraft- moved up into the northern hemisphere most likely through intermingling of allied troops in one of the two world wars, though the term Billycan may have arrived even earlier. So did Billycans not exist prior? Of course they did. Coffee cans were used by Cowboys and countless other outdoorsmen to boil water in for tea, cooking and of course coffee. The term may not have been present here in North America, but the concept was the same.
A billycan can boil water to make it safe to consume, cook stews and soups, catch rain water and even be used as an oven if proper planning is employed. Billycans can be used as shovels, berry baskets, drums to wake up your fellow campers each morning (as the Voyageur often did here in Canada), can be used as a cutting surface for vegetable and meat. A billycan can be employed as a bowl for eating out of, a cup for drinking out of, and in some instances, as a chamberpot (the author would like to warn the reader to please never confuse the chamberpot billycan as a drinking cup billycan). The uses of a billycan outweigh the fact that it should be a mandatory piece of kit, and is alas, the most difficult to pack into one of those nifty little survival kits we see all over the market. However the billycan kicks back into service by being the perfect container to carry all of the required small items the woodsman may wish to have with him or her. From matches, to a bag of jerky, a billycan can carry them all. Very convenient, no?
A billycan is a personal choice, just like any other item in your kit. The materials can be as varied as ceramics and metals. Yes folks, your cooking pot too can be an anodized, ultra-suave one-and-a-half litre billycan. Or it can be a carefully coiled, formed, dried and fire hardened clay pot. It can be anything in between.
Boiling water with hot rocks is known throughout the world to function. The techniques employed by most result in a sludge at the bottom of the container, often being a mix of ash, soot, and rock dust. Doesn't that just sound delicious? Proper rock boiling requires a great deal of experience in selecting the proper stones, heating them to the right temperature, dusting off any debris possible, and changing them at the right intervals. It is a lot of work, but it does indeed work. With a lot less sludge too!
Ceramics are a bit less troublesome. You can boil water in them just as easy as you would with a metal cook-pot, though some consideration must be involved. First, the pots must be fired properly, or they will fall apart upon adding water. Secondly, even coals must be used when heating the water in the pot. And sporadic flames could cause a stress crack to appear and destroy your hard earned work. I will often leave my clay pots near the fire to keep them warm so that no shock from cold air to hot coals happens. Clay pots are a wonderful, natural way of making your water safe to drink, or to cook a survival stew.They are cumbersome however, often being five times heavier to an equally sized steel pot. They are also much more fragile. Yes, loose sand can be scooped and moved with a clay pot, but don't try to dig through hard soil or shovel out a latrine in some gravel!
This leaves us with metal billycans, as they are lighter and tougher than a clay pot, and much easier for the novice to use than hot rock boiling. History has seen a great deal of different metals used. Copper was most likely the first, and sadly is not considered by many as safe to use for cooking implements any longer. This is sad, as copper distributes heat evenly and can heat up much faster than steel or iron. Another advantage is that copper pots can be dented and easily hammered back into position with a hardwood baton. Tin has also been used, though again some speak of ill health effects from its' continued use. Another disadvantage was that it would frequently break down over prolonged use over a fire. Bronze and brass have had ancient use for water jugs, though it is unclear from research whether cooking vessels were commonly made from these metals. Regardless of the evidence, both brass and bronze are very heavy materials to try to carry along as a daily cooking vessel. Iron quickly was adopted, especially casted iron. This is why dutch ovens made of cast iron are still popular among those who love to cook over an open fire. Their weight made it impractical for a sole person to use when travelling light, but was historically seen on canoe voyages. The downfalls to cast iron, and other iron alloys (except for steel) were that they were bulky, heavy and were very prone to rust. Not good things. This is why tin cooking vessels, plates and cups were predominant in the formation of Euro-American woodsmen, even late into the 1900s.
It is interesting to point out that the nomadic tribes of native peoples of Canada and the northern States rarely traded for any metal cooking pots. As they could not be as easily replaced, repaired or carried as a bark basket. In comparison, agricultural tribes such as the Iroquois and the Huron frequently traded for metal cooking vessels, as they remained in a village for long periods, rather than moving from camp to camp as resources were depleted. It has also been noted by some anthropologists, that agricultural tribes that had such a use for metal pots were the ones that were the quickest to be "civilized". As other trade goods went from being novel items to required equipment for day to day living, it was easier to encourage European ideals and lifestyle upon them. Interesting way to look at materialism, is it not?
As metal became more and more mastered, steel came into being. This new iron alloy could be made thinner and lighter than their cast iron relatives, yet remain strong. Iron axeheads changed to iron axeheads with a steel bit, and eventually into pure steel axeheads. A similar transformation happened to billycans. We now had easily purchased, easily carried and easily used cooking pots that could be as small as a steel cup, or as large as a cauldron.
Aluminum has also been used, but again, health issues have arisen that makes many people not trust it. Anodized aluminum is considered much safer, but requires a lot of care to not damage the anodized coating. It should be noted that anodizing is considered a fairly environmental method to make aluminum safe for cooking with. It is a very light, and fairly rugged metal for cooking with, and takes heat incredibly fast compared to their steel counterparts.

Author's billycan heating up some rice and beans while a steel water bottle melts snow for drinking water, and a modern ultralight kettle heats water for tea and coffee. (Photo by Paul Wilde)
Titanium is also popular now, though the billycans made from them are rarely inexpensive (though each year the prices do seem to drop). Like aluminum, they take heat fast and evenly, though some say too fast. It can also hold the heat for a while, which is good for a hot meal, but not so much for when boiling water to make is safe to drink. The heat can stay for a long time, and can quickly give painful burns to fingers or lips.
The modern woodsman has many options to choose from. It can be hard to make a choice in this world of ads, gear reviews everywhere, and everyone and their uncle being "experts". A few good options for a cooking vessel are; Steel mugs, Stainless steel water bottles (specifically the kind with no seam, no paint and no linings of any kind), apple juice cans with wire bails (beware, as the lining of such a can could possibly transfer BPA and other chemicals into drinking water), store-bought camping pots, homemade cooking pots, and metal containers used to house survival equipment.
Out of everything, a Billycan ought to hold at least a litre of water. Ultralight backpackers often carry smaller pots and kettles, and argue that it can be heated faster, therefore the water boiled quicker. This is true, however is it not more practical to boil a litre of water at a time, rather than having to frequently heat water to boiling? The constant boiling and cooling process can be a pain in the rear after a few hours of drinking only a few hundred millilitres at a time! So good advice for longterm living, is to use a billycan that holds a reasonable amount of water, and one litre is definitely a reasonable amount. Other important features to a billycan are; strong, light, has a secure bail (the handle you hang the billycan over a fire from), there is a snug fitting lid, and that it does not leach undesirable heavy metals or chemicals into the drinking water.
Many people focus on the concept of surviving with just a knife. I have gotten by on many occasions with just a cracked stone, or a sharpened tin lid. However, each time I did so, I struggled to get adequate drinking water. To me, a billycan is as important as a knife, and in some instances more valuable of a tool. With a blanket, a knife, a fire starting device and a billycan, one with enough experience can get by quite comfortably for a good amount of time. So let us remember practicality, and always make sure to thank our billycans.

End of the road, time for some coffee (photo by Caleb Musgrave)
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The BTK by TOPS Knives
Author :: Caleb Musgrave
Date :: Thu 08/25/2011 @ 05:34
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Caleb, always looking for funky and fun Nessmuk knives, tries out the little Beast offered by TOPS Knives
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TOPS BTK
Though I love the bigger knives out there, I always like to try out smaller blades. More control in carving and skinning applications often calls for smaller knives. Those being heavily used applications in Bushcraft means the knife often should be no longer than five inches of bladelength. This however differs from a survival-oriented knife, which should be able to chop more, to provide firewood, shelter material, etc. In Bushcraft, we carry an axe, saw, machete, or heavy knife for the heavy chores, and a smaller knife for the detailed work. This leaves me with much interest in what I call Micro-knifes (a blade length no more than three inches) for the real detailed work.
I am a hunter, and an old-fashioned woodsman in many aspects. I prefer an open fire to cook my food over any liquid or pressurized fueled stove. I like the feel of wool and buckskin over any modern gore-tex or polypro. So when I heard TOPS was coming out with a Nessmuk model of knife, I kind of had a fit of joy. One of my favourite brand of knives is TOPS, because they listen to their customers, and are really into their work. I have never been disappointed with a knife of their make. And one of my favourite styles of blades is the 'Nessmuk' knife blade. Nessmuk was actually a gentleman named George Washington Sears, who spent months in the northern American and the Canadian wilds. With less than fifty pounds of gear (including his wood and canvas canoe mind you), he set a standard in both Bushcraft and Ultralight backpacking. Nessmuk (Mr. Sears' pen-name in many of his writings) carried only three cutting tools; a small folding knife, a double-bit hatchet and a knife of his own design. Now, that design borrows a lot from the old-timers' knives. With a swept up tip and a large hump in the spine, this knife just begged to skin wild game. I have owned several custom Nessmuks in my time. I loved all of them, and was always sad to see them go. I am fluid with most knives. If the knife means a lot to me, and the person means a lot to me, they often end up being joined together, and not in the violent manner mind you!
I have skinned, dressed and butchered practically every type of wildlife you would expect a Canadian woodsman to do so- other than Arctic game. A large swath of moose, deer, black bear, coyote, wolf, fisher, grouse and Lord knows how many type of fish and other small game felt the edge of a Nessmuk knife in my hand. So when I went through a winter of not owning a Nessmuk knife (as again, I gave my last one away), I was beginning to jones for one. Just a hit of Nessmuk, maybe a Green River Belt Knife? Perhaps a Grohmann D.H. Russell? None of them could compare to the smooth action of a genuine Nessmuk knife. You see, the secret behind the Nessmuk is the continual belly. There is practically no straight edge on it. Some variations give you about an inch of straight cutting edge near the handle, but I don't enjoy these designs. It slows the sharpening process (which with a fully curved edge is a breeze to hone and strop). But add the hump on the spine (which makes opening the belly cavity of an animal a simple chore), and you now have a hunting knife design that can leave the majority of other designs in the "obsolete" pile.
Well when I got my BTK knife by TOPS Knives, I was giddier than ever. The "BTK" stands for "Bird and Trout Knife", which is a common term for small blades that are used specifically to field-dress game, usually small game. Many knife brands have their own Bird and Trout Knife designs, but I wanted the one by TOPS. Dammit, I lusted for the one by TOPS. It was a micro-Knife. It was a Nessmuk. It was prettier than a Belle at a Ball. The 440 Stainless Steel I experienced in the TOPS Shango knife was the same steel I was to experience in the BTK. The major differences being that the BTK had a much thinner edge, and had no coating on it. This knife shaved immediately.
Now, I don't believe in a one-task knife. So yes, this knife was obviosuly made for skinning, but I first wanted to see what she could do in woodcraft. I cut through two inch willows and one and a half inch thick dogwoods. This was some mean feat for a three inch blade! The continuous curve of the cutting edge was preent, though albeit shallower than the traditional Nessmuk. But again, all curve means one fun time at the sharpening stone. I cut spokes and weavers for a simple conical basket, and with no effort my past of basket weaving (if I had gone to college, I probably would have majored in underwater basketweaving) and the BTK by TOPS completed a serviceable and lovely basket for gathering wild goods.
There, so it could carve and cut wood well. I checked the edge on my thumbnail. She was sharp with no discernable dings. Pretty good for a small knife. The handle caused no hot spots, even though it was tiny. Remember, my hand is seven inches from heel of palm to tip of middle finger, and nearly five inches wide from thumb joint to little finger. Again, impressive. Most impressive as the Lord of the Sith may say. I next batoned across the grain of a three inch thick oak that had died the year before. Not as hard as seasoned oak, but still pretty tough. Now let's recap folks. Tough wood that is as thick as the blade is long. This usually spells doom on a small knife. But the flat grind of the TOPS Bird and Trout Knife wedged into the wood just the way you want it to. Its' secondary bevel was tough enough to not roll over or dent, but was fine enough that I cut through the sapling in three whacks. That woulda made anyone trust this blade. This is not a knife made for heavy abuse like using it as a climbing device in some 007 action flick, but she sure does take abuse well.
Okay, the wood work is done already. Let's get onto the gooey messy fun stuff. I was returning from the annual Headwaters Gathering, when early in the morning we found a freshly killed coyote. She was a two year old judging from her size. Now, I know what a lot of people say "good riddance". Here's an interesting fact though. Did you know that on average, every time a member of a coyote band dies, the females will be fertile with twice as many eggs the next breeding season? That means for every coyote we shoot out of rage, we're helping increase the numbers. Kinda puts the whole thing into perspective huh? Anyways, I hate to see roadkilled critters, regardless of how controversial they are to hunters, farmers or animal rights activists. So me being me (and having the legal ability to harvest roadkill, remember folks, check your local regulations and be safe about it), I tossed her into a garbage bag and took her home. Within an hour of arriving home from Headwaters, I had her skinned. The problem for me as a guy that skins game, is I have no patience for skinning the paws. I just cut them off with a hatchet, cover them with borax and remove the claws later for decorative uses. I had left my hatchet at my base camp, and I was getting that urge to do something silly we men seem to get when we have dead animals within arm's reach. So I grabbed an ash log for a baton and placed the BTK an inch above the joint. Now, I am not saying green coyote bone is as hard as diamonds by any means. But cutting through any bone is damaging to a thin edged knife. And the BTK by TOPS was definitely a thin edged knife. Most of the time the bones will dent and roll the edge of the knife. Depending on the bone, the heat treatment and the design of the knife edge, this can be the worst of it, or the least of your worries. I've seen knives split like kindling when guys tried to baton through a frozen moose femur. I've seen a pocket knife fall apart when a fellow woods wanderer decided he just had to try to get the marrow out of his deer's ribs without waiting for my ax. Again, guys get silly around dead animals. I blame it on the school system (everyone else is, so why shouldn't I?). So back to me and this coyote. I lifted the baton and made sure my glasses were between me and any shrapnel of bone or steel which was about to come. Whack, whack. Done as clean as if it was a big ole bowie knife. No damage to the knife edge. In fact, after sterilizing it in boiling water, I shaved my face with her.
Tough, sharp, comfortable and effective. These are the features I ask for in any knife, But to find such big requirements in such a little package? I can't complain. Hell, I have to shout it from the rooftops. The TOPS Knives Bird and Trout Knife (BTK) is a great blade for those who wish to go to a smaller knife this hunting season. And for the price, they really are beauts. The leather paddle-style sheath is comfortable to wear on a belt mountain man style, or tuck into your back jeans pocket. This knife is small enough for children and small ladies, but just big enough for us big bruisers to use just as well. I'll tell you folks, this knife can sure make field-dressing easy and enjoyable.
Enjoy your hunting season, and while you get ready for it this year, why not check out TOPS Knifes? The BTK is just one knife you may catch yourself drooling over!
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The Roof; The Crown of a Shelter.
Author :: Caleb Musgrave
Date :: Thu 08/25/2011 @ 05:32
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Different roofing materials found in nature, both in the Eastern Hardwoods and the Boreal Forest of North America.
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Introduction
A roof is in any sense of the word, overhead protection from the weather. This can be as complex as splitting shingles out of a cedar or pine log and pegging them down onto an A-frame structure. Or as simple as finding a spruce tree with enough branches to shed the majority of rain or snow. That being said, the primary focus of a roof is that it sheds weather effectively. The secondary importance of a roof is that it holds in the heat, whether it be from a stove, a fire, hot rocks or the occupant’s body heat. If a roof made in nature can accomplish both of these objectives, it is adequate for wilderness living.
There are a multitude of materials that can be used for making a roof, from tarpaulins to tar paper. However this article will focus only on the materials found in nature, specifically in the Canadian Boreal forest and the Hardwoods of eastern North America. Though this article focuses on just those two regions, the concepts inside of this article can be replicated practically in any other region of the world with a creative mind.
Bark
Bark is one of the more effective roofing materials found in nature, as it can be rolled out onto a fairly flat roof, and still shed rain adequately. This feature is not as possible with the thatches found in the woods. Practically any bark will do the job for a short term dwelling, however in any long term lodge, the majority of barks will degrade, crack and/or rot.
In this aspect only a few barks are effective, with birch bark being the most superior and longest to last. This is due to its’ oil content resisting rotting. The beauty of birch bark is that it can be peeled from either living, dead or even rotten trees, and still remain effective. A birch bark roof if well maintained can last a decade. Elm bark in the eastern hardwoods is also effective and can last up to five years respectfully. Other barks that can do good jobs in the Boreal forest is spruce, poplar and pine, though again, birch is best. Spruce is second best, and can come off in effective sheets, that can be used as is, where poplar and pine have the tendency to split or crumble within a few weeks of use, or even when being applied.
Other than in spring when the sap is running and the bark is easily removed from a tree, bark is in general very difficult to gather in effective amounts. Birch bark is often the only roofing material capable of being peeled from the trunk in any season. Even then however, hot water or a torch may be needed to heat the bark enough to make it peel off the tree. Winter time it is nearly impossible to remove any bark from any tree.
The best technique for using bark, or any natural roofing material, is in a shingle style. Starting at the lowest point of the roof, the sheets of bark are laid down and either tied in place, or poles laid on top of them as weights to hold the sheets in place. Gradually more sheets of bark are added moving up the roof, leaving at least a hand-width of overlap between the previous layer and the new layer. This overlap is the secret to an effective roof, as it allow the rain to run down the outside of the roof rather than find a gap and leak inwards.
A single layer of bark on a roof is effective in many aspects, however in seasons where heavy rainfall is present, two layers is a wise move.
Boughs
Though bark is the most effective in the north woods as a roofing material, it is not always applicable. Boughs -the needle covered branches of conifer trees- are often in much greater abundance, and easier to gather than bark. The downfall of nearly any bough is that it must be on a roof that is steep, as a flat or domed roof would allow water to leak through. Boughs are simply the thatch of the Boreal forest, and in that sense must be looked at as such.
Spruce boughs are often the most common and of greatest abundance. However this does not make them superior. Because of the rounded shape of the needles coming from the branch, the resulting roof is not tightly packed, and therefor rain can come through.
The better choice is the boughs of a Balsam fir tree. Often nicknamed in the old days as “Mountain Goose”, this was due to the fact that it was the Down-quilt of many a woodsman. Balsam fir boughs are superior to spruce boughs because of the flatter formation of the needles on the boughs. This allows a tight packing of roofing material, which will shed rain much more effectively.
If one had a protractor with them in the wilderness, and decided to measure what angle their roof should be, it would be very quickly determined that the steeper the angle, the better the roof will shed rain. The more inferior the roofing material is, the steeper this should be. Forty-five degrees is the most shallow any thatched roof should be, and Seventy degrees is the steepest (after that, the roof will be nearly vertical and is now officially a wall that lets rain and snow in from above). A happy medium between forty-five degrees and seventy degrees would be best, though this should be determined by the severity of weather. For the rainy weather, seventy degrees of pitch should be the choice angle. The more it rains, the steeper the roof ought to be, and the more boughs be packed into the roof.
Again, when building such a roof, it is best to start at the bottom and work upwards, like shingles. Adding crossbeams or sticks that can snag and hold the boughs in place is a wise move. The best technique is to make a large pile or boughs at the foot of the roof and from this select the thickest boughs (the branch the bough is made from should only be thumb-thick at the thickest point). Use these as a lattice work by covering the entire framework with the thickest boughs. It doesn’t need to be tightly packed, just spread out so that the ensuing bough roof has something to snag onto and hold it in place. Next, starting at the bottom, take the next thickest boughs and lay them, tip down and butt up. This way when the roof is done, the needles will act like small channels, guiding the rainwater down and away from the shelter. Repeat this action upwards, making even and thick bunches in the roof.
Once the entire roof is covered in boughs, use the remaining ones to fill in any gaps that are noticeable. Check from the inside to see if light is coming through, and if so, place a stick through the gap so it can be seen from the outside, and fill the found spaces in. Done properly, a bough roof will shed rain and hold in a considerable amount of heat.
Grasses and other thatch
Long grasses, sedge, cattails and the common reed (phragmites) are all effective thatching material. Thatched roofs date as far back as the Neolithic era in Europe, and perhaps just as respectively ancient here in North America. From Wickiups, to Colonial houses, thatched roofs have proven to be efficient, though labour intensive.The larger stalked plants such as reed and cattail hold an incredible amount of insulating value. The Ojibway people wove cattail mats to be used as both roofing and bedding.
The hardest task is to get enough material to get the job done. It can take up to fifteen hug sized bundles to properly thatch a lean-to for a single person. It is best to gather the dry, dead standing stalks, rather than green plant matter, as it will shrink when dried and become loose under whatever bindings are used to hold it in place.
Using properly placed rafters, lash the stalks upside-down to the rafters, again starting at the bottom.Lash just the butts of the stalks to the rafter, as the tips should hang freely to help shed rain and offer insulation. Use handfuls, and bind tightly using one continuous cord for each layer. Pack the bundles tightly together and make sure the layers overlap eachother by at least half their length. If the grass stalks are two feet long, the next layer of grass stalks should overlap the first by at least a foot. This covers gaps and makes for a tight wall that resists wind and rain.
The pitch of the roof should be no shallower than fifty degrees. Seventy degrees is optimum. Once all layers are lashed down tightly by their butts ends, give the roof a shake to “fluff up” the thatch. This helps the grasses or otherr thatch shift into a proper position and interlock with one another.
Debris
The classic survival manual staple, debris. Dead leaf litter from the forest floor, heaped up on top of a frame whose latticework or crossbeams are close enough to catch the leaves and hold them in place. The focus of such a roofing material is almost completely insulation, as unless immense amounts of leaf litter is added (to the point of depleting all nearby supply) to the shelter, rain will trickle in from every conceivable and inconceivable direction! The trick here is to make sure no sticks protrude from the framework, as they will become channels for water.
Just like thatched roofs or any other natural material roof, the hardest job is acquiring enough roofing material to get the job done. The use of a jacket or shirt will be useful as a bag of sorts to heap the collected leaves in and carry back to the framework. A simple tip is to go as far as 300 yards from the shelter and begin collecting out there. That way as the day wears on, and energy gradually lowers, leaf litter will still be nearby to use.
The roof should be started with a thick layer piled high to the top of the framework. Once this first layer is added, push it down to the bottom, packing it into a dense pile much akin to the size of a hay-bale. This will make a good platform for the next layer of debris, and also help show how thick the roof must be to both insulate and shed rain. Repeat the process until the entire framework is covered in a densely packed roof that is as thick as an arm is long. Lay poles or branched sticks across the roof to hold the leaves in place.
Every few days to a week or so, the roof will settle, becoming less insulating and more prone to leaking. Add more leaf litter every three or four days. These new layers will not have to be as thick as the original roof, but they should be packed densely as before. Another option is to remove the roof every week, stir it up with a stick or a foot and then return it to the frame of the shelter. This is very similar to fluffing a pillow.
The true beauty of a debris hut is, that when most other materials are difficult to find, a roof can still be covered with debris.
Skins
From tepees to the occasional buckskin doorflap, animal hides have been used to shelter mankind since at least the Paleolithic period. Even Mongolian yurts use animal hide in a sense (wool being felted into large mats). The biggest problem is hunting enough animals to cover a shelter. Another important of course is preserving the hides so that they do not rot or attract animals into the dwelling! The thicker the hide, the better is sheds the weather. It is difficult to get in large amounts when alone, however no one can argue the value of such a material for the wilderness dweller.
Conclusion
Large green leaves, boards split out of logs, ferns and a multitude of other materials are out there along with the previously highlighted materials. As well, do not think a roof must be made strictly out of one medium, as thatched roofs often go well with bark shingles. Experimentation -just like in any other bush skill- is paramount to the success of any endeavour. Practise and experience will grow from trial and error. Over time the results will be put together faster, neater and more efficiently. Angles and measurements won’t have to be figured out. A “feel” for how it should be will come with time. And over the years, some frustration and much enjoyment will come from experimenting with roofs for an outdoor abode. No sil-nylon tarp is as light as the knowledge of how to create a home out of nothing but nature.
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Altama Operation Oasis Mountain Hikers
Author :: Caleb Musgrave
Date :: Thu 08/25/2011 @ 05:29
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After many months of hard use, Caleb has finally come to a simple decision about the Operation Oasis Mountain Hikers made by Altama Boots.
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I have always had a problem finding good footwear. I have had a lot of foot problems growing up. Severe ingrown toenails, injured ankles, and shin splints have all tormented me. About a year ago a foot specialist told me that due to my Native blood, my foot is considered "flat", though it's actually not (something about a shallow arch). Add that I have been a size fourteen since I was twelve years old, and you start to see my conundrum. I've worn every type of functional footwear in the woods I could possibly find in my size; sandals, moccasins, army surplus boots, steel toe construction boots, rubber boots, and even barefoot. Of the list, the only three that didn't cause pain in my legs, ankles and feet were the moccasins, sandals and barefootedness. Even my beloved army surplus jungle boots cause me pain when hiking long distances. Sadly, moccasins, sandals and barefoot are not good options for the deep cold of the Canadian north. Nor are they wise when swinging an axe or machete!
Besides the comfort factor is the wearing factor. I go through a few pairs of boots a year. This is due to a lot of reasons, all of which listed would fill up more room than one article can be, so I will just give five important reasons;
1) The rough Canadian Shield chews up soles very quickly, it also scuffs the uppers of the boots until there is often nothing but shredded fabric.
2) The wet, mucky marshes, bogs, muskegs, creeks and deep puddles (or small ponds depending on your interpretation) soak into the fabric, and if the stitchings are cotton, rots them away quickly.
3) The moving of logs, rocks, and even dirt often including pushing them with my foot. This also wears down on the fabric.
4) The extreme cold I deal with in winter (often being -40 or colder) can delaminate almost any epoxy or glue used to bind outer soles to the uppers of most boots.
5) Regular -if not constant- use of tools and equipment (axes, machetes, atvs etc) causes a lot of stress.
I'll often wear a boot until it falls right off my foot, so to find a pair that last a couple of months is impressive. So when a friend of mine suggested I check out Altama Boots, I rolled my eyes and said "here we go again..". But I figured I ought to at least try them. I put in an order, and though it took a while for them to manufacture a size fourteen (which is expected, as the most common "big" boot is size twelve), they did assure me there would be a pair made to my order. The pair arrived in early November, just in time for a bunch of weekend courses, and my annual hunting trip. Fresh out of the box, they looked beautiful. The quality was easily seen, and Altama's pride in their product was very clear. The model I ordered were called the Operation Oasis Mountain Hikers, and were made with a goretex liner, nubuck leather uppers, and a well formed sole. The treads had a funky "wave" pattern to them, that I knew would help make my tracks unique when doing tracking workshops or participating in Search-and-Rescue. I also felt the treads with my thumb; they felt grippy. This was a plus when in regards to the Canadian Shield in late autumn (a very wet, slick rock could ruin your day, or your life).
I had a lot of ankle injuries growing up, so although wearing sandals or moccasins is fine, the minute I put on a heavy pack, I always need something to support the over-abused joints. Upon putting on the boots, I felt a comfortable snugness around my ankles. I laced the boots up (which had very secure lace-loops) and filled my rucksack with about 120lbs of gear, and took a five minute walk outside, going up and down some small hills. Though I was straining to a degree, my ankles showed no pain or "jarring". This, plus the proper arch support for my kind of feet made my legs barely wobble. This started to make me feel confident in these Operation Oasis Mountain Hikers.
Over the next few weeks, I lead courses with Canadian Bushcraft in the Carolinian forests of South-central Ontario. I was climbing into freezing cold cattail marshes to collect the edible roots, kicking dirt loose from uprooted trees (to be used to landscape a new cooking range), and hauling heavy gear over some pretty dicey terrain. The part that amazed me the most was the lack of hot-spots or cramps in my feet. The boots fit like a pair of well used gloves would to my hands. I didn't need to break these boots in? That is always a great thing with a product.
After a few weeks of hard use just around the camp, the boots still looked good as new. So I was confident to take them with me hunting up north. We hunt deer on the borderlands. The borderlands are a mix of a lot of ecosystems in central Ontario. In this area you have pure Canadian Shield meadows (big crevasses hidden by a labrynth of juniper bushes), Open Pine Oak woodlands, deep and frigid swamps, swift running creeks through some southern expanses of Boreal forest, and acre upon acre of shale-like granite gravel valleys. This is where my best boots often fail. You have so many things that could happen; Twist an ankle in a unseen crack in the meadows, slip in one of the creeks, soak your feet in the swamps, or cut the uppers open on the blade-like shards of granite that litter everywhere. This is where footwear goes to get punished for its' sins.
I never struggled once while wearing these boots, and even with a single pair of socks I was warm and comfortable (as sometimes the days were so hot, two or more pairs would overheat my feet). My feet gripped the small cliffs and ledges of the Canadian Shield like I was a mountain goat, and the nubuck uppers shed juniper needles like they were water off a duck's back. The best test was the two days of deer driving I had to do. In our area, sometimes a man has to walk through the woods to get the deer moving, as it's too warm out for them to willingly stroll. The trick is, the driver has to go through some of the wettest, thickest woods you can imagine. We've nicknamed it Green Hell. And in Green Hell, only the young men drive the deer. Sadly 90% of my hunting party are over the age of forty-five, and I am a mere twenty-two years of age. Guess who does the deer driving? I marched through muskeg and swift flowing streams that were flowing over polished granite. In about a half an hour of time, I was through the first leg of Green Hell. I stopped and thought about this. I have driven that area for the past four years. In those four years, the shortest it ever took me was two hours. I figured I had gone too fast, so when I got to the next expanse of it, I made sure to consciously force myself to slow down more. This wasn't too hard, because I had to work around a swamp. However I realized I was still making good time.
Over the past several months, I have tested these boots in extreme cold (-35C), and extreme hard use (snowshoeing 15km with toboggan and heavy rucksack, daily long distance walks, etc). The most that has happened is a slight seperation of the outsole from the uppers along the insteps. This doesn't really effect the boot badly in use, though overtime this could produce damage from dirt getting in and abrading the threads that hold the pieces together. I rectified this by a simple dollop of Shoe-Goo. Is this a bad sign on Altama? Of course not, due to the shape of my feet, my insteps are always seperating on boots. This usually takes three or four weeks, with Altama this took three or four months! Again, this is due to hard, abusive wearing of the boots.
At the time of writing this article, I have worn the Altama Operation Oasis Mountain Hikers for approximately 150 of the 200+ days I've owned them, and this was not easy lounging, or sitting in a deer blind. This was one of the toughest tests I pulled on a pair of boots. I've had some of the biggest names in outdoor footwear fail me utterly. However the Altama Operation Oasis Mountain Hikers are definitely not on that list!
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TOPS Tactical NUK
Author :: Caleb Musgrave
Date :: Thu 08/25/2011 @ 05:29
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Caleb tests out a knife made with no metal (and no, it's not primitive!!)
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I am a fan of TOPS Knives, this is due to the quality in their products, and the pride that Mike and Helene Fuller have in their company. To have owners that stand by their products whole-heartedly is something I trust more than the products. I have used countless knives in the field, from a multitude of brands, companies and makers. From the classic Mora, to custom knives that have cost me hundreds of dollars. Out of all of my years playing with blades, I have always been impressed by TOPS, and have stood by them.
To me, a back-up tool should be something that is always there, capable of taking harsh abuse, and in the end, able to save your life. That being said, many companies make some very good "back-up tools", but my favourites always seem to be TOPS. So when a pair of Tactical NUKs (Nonmetallic Utility Knife) arrived at my place, I was sure that I would be able to put them to the test without complaint.
The Tactical NUK is a spearpointed shank on steroids, being made from a Nylon-based material that is impact resistant and takes a good working edge. The overall length of the NUK is six and three-quarter inches long, with a blade standing at three and a quarter inches in length. This makes it a decent legal carry knife. What makes it more interesting is that I cannot for the life of me figure out the weight of this tool. Being a simple guy, I don't have ultra-fancy scales, and usually stick to basic kitchen scales when I want to weigh my blades. I wish my scales had a measurement that read "???", because this feather-light blade is baffling me on its' measurement.
Needless to say, the Tactical NUK is light enough to be carried anywhere. And being made of a plastic-like material instead of steel, the NUK won't rust, won't corrode easily to weather and can remain sharp. When the NUK did dull on me, I simply used some fine wet-and-dry sandpaper on the edge and polished it back to a sharp edge. Being a plastic, you will not likely get a razor edge on the material, but even so, I filleted several trout with this little blade. Being a Nylon-material it didn't pick up any of the fish smell, and once cleaned with simple soap and water was cleaner than any of my professional fillet knives. I prepared hard vegetables such as potatoes and carrots with the Tactical NUK and even sliced several tomatoes. Tomatoes are usually complex to slice without a razor edge, but the partially serrated cutting edge of the NUK helped carve right through the tomato. As well, if you compare the NUK to a high carbon steel knife, most carbon steel knives will have corrosion marks and stains afterward. This is due to the acids of the tomato. The NUK was clean and fine even after 4 days with the tomato juices left on it. A plus for plastic-like knives!
I shredded cardboard, paper, aluminum cans and even buckskin with the Tactical NUK, none could stand up to it. Again, it was not a scalpel, but it achieved the tasks it had to, and for something that is nothing more than Nylon-based material, that was incredible. I am not military personnel, but after discussing the values of this tool with a former Marine friend of mine in the United States, the truth of it's strength came out. The Tactical NUK is perfect as a small self defense tool. Strap it to the side of your car seat, duct tape it above your door-frame, or even hang it around your neck, and you will have a small "shank" that will make any invader or attacker think twice from just one "poke". I wouldn't start a knife fight with a Tactical NUK, but if one came to my door, I'm sure I'd be glad to have this light but fast defender on my side. I was impressed so much that I gave the second one to my girlfriend to keep on her bed-stand.
Inside of the "Weapon" category, the value of the Tactical NUK speaks out to me as a wilderness food-gathering tool. Being lighter than metal or stone projectiles, the NUK is not a throwing knife. However I attached it to a dogwood shaft and let it loose from my Algonquin-inspired Hickory longbow. The weight was light enough that it did not detract from the accuracy of the shot. Piercing a cardboard box stuffed tightly with newspapers, the Tactical NUK became a miniature warhead, penetrating deep enough to make a decent "kill". I then lashed it to an alder staff and thrust it much like one would use a hand-spear. I then used the same spear like a javelin. Both means came out successful.
As I examined the Tactical NUK, I had an idea. I tied a piece of inner-cord from a length of parachute cord, to the lanyard hole of the NUK. I then split the end of a willow pole and loosely lashed the NUK into place. With the Leaf-shaped profile of the Tactical NUK and the small serrations nearer the handle, I now had an optimum Harpoon for spearing fish. Both medium and large fish could easily be landed with such a weapon. However, maybe due to my Ojibway blood crying out, I decided to go for a more "Aboriginal" concept on spearing fish. I borrowed the girlfriend's NUK and lashed both it and mine to the end of the willow shaft. With two forks I now had what resembled a Chippewa fishing spear, very similar to the ones I had used to take bullfrogs, bass, and pickerel. Such a light tool, hanging around my neck by a length of parachute cord could truly mean dinner in a wilderness setting.
You can use it as a letter opener, a potato peeler, a defense tool or even a food-catcher. You can leave it out in the weather indefinitely and return to still have a workable tool. It is so light and small that you can have it literally anywhere you feel like carrying one, and you can always stash it with your Bug-out-Bag. With so many values it is hard to argue picking up a couple of them. What makes it even harder to argue them is the price. For under fifteen dollars you can get not just one, but two of these small but mighty tools. Effective, light, inexpensive, what is left to say?
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TOPS Power Eagle-12
Author :: Caleb Musgrave
Date :: Thu 08/25/2011 @ 05:28
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Caleb tries his hands on a knife with a lot of South Pacific inspiration.
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I know many people speak out against large knives, and others praise the hulking behemoths out there that happen to have a sharpened edge to them. I may write in the future about the subject of “small knife versus large knife”, but for now let's just take a look at one mighty large knife; the Power Eagle-12 by TOPS Knives.
Now, a while ago I began working on some of my own knife designs, basically kicking around in my head what would be a proper field knife for the Canadian wilderness. Over two months I tried to make a knife design that was new and basically a reinventment of the wheel. It finally came to me that it was pointless to do so. The true knives for the field are those who are inspired (or already are) traditional knives that have been in use for at least several generations. Kukris, Leukus, Bolo machetes, Pangas, Hudson Bay knives and the like are all perfect examples of traditional blades that still pack a punch in the wilderness. They are time-tested and proven to be capable of handling the field. Really all they need is a fresh start with modern materials to make them truly superior; Micarta handles, nylon or kydex sheathes, rust-protected specially treated steels, etc. Maybe a few modern concepts impregnated into the knife, and you really do have a true modern “wilderness knife”.
However, when TOPS designer Leo Espinoza developed the Power Eagle-12, he basically hit my new theory so hard on the nail that he broke the mold along with it. Leo chose to blend a Bolo machete's length and thinness with a Kukri's edge angles and forward weight. Basically put, you have the only acceptable kukri machete out there for genuine field work. I have used Kukri machetes from several brands. They are all too light to really chop well, and the forward curve is so heavily pronounced, they usually “hook” the vine or sapling rather than “snick” through it. This makes you have to exert more energy into your cuts, rendering you tired faster.
Leo's “Kuka-Bolo” concept kept the Kukri edge but had it flowing in a shallow angle, more like a leaf-shaped knife, such as a Barong. When I went out with the knife for the first time, I specifically aimed for thing springy ash and willow saplings, branches and shoots. These make a Kukri Machete your enemy pretty fast. As well, heavier knives and axes more often “bounce” off this kind of material rather than cut through it. I snipped branches, shoots and saplings with ease I had a pile of willows left over so I first wove a bedframe out of them inside a wigwam. I used the close quarters to see how efficient I could chop with little movement. Too high of a reach or big swipes, and I would tear the covering of the wigwam, rendering it useless. The control on the knife, and the lightness allowed me ease of movement, but because of that Bolo design blending well with the kukri, we now had a weight forward knife. What does that mean? Flick of my wrist and I had inch-thick saplings sheared clean, that's what.
Next I took some of the ash shoots and branches, and decided to make a smoking rack in my backyard. I often process up to 50 fish or more for the winter, needing to smoke them. Add the jerky and hide tanning that I do in the fall and you may realize the value of a smoking rack for a guy like me! I decided to make a basic tripod rack, and immediately began work. First I sharpened the ends of the three main poles, which were about two inches thick. This allows them to dig into the ground rather than slip. Next I had to find something to tie them with. Noticing a side of the old shed was overgrown with wild grape vines, I hacked all but the main one down. The main one is over three inches thick, and I felt it was of value to me, so I simply cleared off the smaller vines. I took one and used it to lash the three poles together (using a simple constrictor knot), the rest I used to lash the sidebars onto the tripod. The ash shoots were woven tightly and I now had a smoking rack that could complete all the tasks I required of it.
Wood splitting is a horse of a different colour. Machetes don't often have the weight or thickness to split heavy timber. Often they bind in mid split, and even with a baton are a pain in the butt to get through a piece of wood. The Power Eagle-12 has a nearly full-flat grind, going from a quarter inch spine down to a razor edge. This makes it like a splitting wedge. And with that twelve inch blade (hence Power Eagle-12), you now have a wedge that can chop in like and axe, and if it needs back-up with a baton, you have a lot of steel to hit.
Now many would probably like to know how this blade compares to the Ontario RTAK II. That knife has become incredibly popular among soldiers, survivalists and a lot of weekend warriors. Many claim it to be the ultimate large knife for wilderness survival and expeditions. I have also used the RTAK II in similar field work, and have to say that where the RTAK II does fail is in the weight of the blade. The handle is much heavier than the blade, which makes it good for slashing work but not for chopping, splitting or other heavy chores. Where that knife is weak, the Power Eagle-12 is strong. As well, in fine work, the Power Eagle-12 is balanced and extremely capable of detailed cutting, which is impressive for a knife with a foot long blade. I feathered sticks, shaped deadfall triggers, and even made a bowdrill kit with just the Power Eagle-12. Strong, powerful and yet capable of doing light work. This makes it a superior large knife for the field.
I examined the sheath, which was Ballistic Nylon with a plastic liner. The large pouch on the front fit multi-tools, sharpening tools and even a mini-survival kit in an Altoid tin. Wearing the sheath directly on my belt was comfortable, and very little thigh-slapping was felt when the sheath was not lashed to my leg. However upon tying the sheath against my thigh, the knife was now stationary and stable. I am not a fan of this method of carrying a knife, because in some circumstances it can constrict bloodflow to the lower leg, especially in cold weather. However many suggest this method, and if one wishes to do so with the Power Eagle-12, fear not, for it does the task well. If you are like me and don't like tying a sheath to your leg, feel free not to, because the sheath does not sway enough to make the thigh slapping (if any) noticeable.
Along with the Power Eagle-12, a small knife in a kydex sheath was included. This knife being the ALRT-XL with a skeletonized handle. I filleted over a dozen bass, trout and pickerel with the ALRT-XL, and quickly noted how well the simple straight-edge did (much like the front edge of a tanto). I easily sharpened the ALRT-XL without needing to worry about a belly or rounded tip. The little blade cut like a scalpel, and I used her for detailed work on many tasks, such as skinning small game, carving the small notch for a small deadfall trigger meant for squirrel, and even preparing food. The combination of a large knife with a small knife is my favourite cutting tool choice. They go together so well, and the ALRT-XL was a perfect partner for the Power Eagle-12.
As I began to work more around the house during a one week hiatus, I remembered the Power Eagle-12 was based on two knives that were from Pacific/Indian Ocean cultures. These cultures use the knife for not just field work, but house chores such as preparing dinner. With my girlfriend over, I decided to make her a special dinner, using only the Power Eagle-12. I finely chopped herbs, crushed and diced garlic, and even trimmed and cut peppers for the salad. Using the Power Eagle-12 alone, I made a Sirloin Steak dinner, with Salad, Sweet Potato Fritz, and even made a blueberry vinaigrette for the salad (this meant dicing the herbs, and squashing the blueberries). She was extremely satisfied with the dinner, and I was extremely satisfied with the functional ability of the Power Eagle-12. Sadly she asked me not to wear it at the dinner table. I suppose my dinner etiquette requires more work, but luckily the Power Eagle-12 doesn't work hard for the dinner.
I kept thinking about the Power Eagle-12 over the next few days, remembering that I was located not in the area this knife's origins are. I live in a temperate Canadian forest, not a tropical rainforest, a desert island nor a bamboo woodland. Yet this Kuka-bolo handled itself incredibly well in my terrain and climate. I thought about where the knife was made; 100% in the United States of America. Though the micarta handle was comfortable and the blade was sharp and durable, I felt it strange to have a knife whose two parents (the Kurki and the Bolo) were meant for a climate completely different from mine, not get tested with materials from those regions. I found a thick piece of bamboo that I used in the past for fire-saw kits, and I bought a few coconuts.
The densely polished bamboo has been in my garage for two years now, and was in Chinatown in Toronto for Lord knows how long. It usually scratches rather than cuts when I use a Bowie, saw or axe on it; skidding the edge off almost harmlessly. Only my Parangs and very well made machetes ever cut through it. I took aim and struck, biting deep into the long seasoned tropical wood. The flat grind of the Power Eagle-12 releasing from the cut with barely any hesitation if any, leaving a cut over an inch and a half deep and two inches down the bamboo. I aimed and struck again, popping a large chunk right off the section. I checked the edge on a piece of paper, remembering exactly where on the edge I cut the bamboo. No drag or ragged cutting was found, just a smooth slice through the paper.
I set the coconuts on my deck railing, aiming right along the “spine of the eel” as the Samoans explain it. One solid flick of my wrist, assisted by some leverage from my elbow cracked each coconut easily. After pouring the juice of the coconut into a bowl I used the tip of the Power Eagle-12 to scrape out the meat into a saucepan filled with water. The tip of this kuka-bolo design easily grated the meat and now simmering I had the beginnings of Coconut milk, which I later used as the base of my Labrador tea rather than water (I may be using a tropically inspired knife, but I am a Canadian woodsman, so I just had to make it into Labrador tea!).
With such a robust blade that is strong, sharp, and has weight in all of the right places, it is easy to already understand the value in it. However add that the durable micarta handle is ergonomic and balanced, and that the entire knife is extremely light for such a large knife with a thick spine, and you begin to truly see it's worth. Now add that it has a sheath with a comfortable belt loop and a secure pouch for extra goods, plus a handy extra blade such as the ALRT-XL, and you now know why I enjoy being the owner of such a versatile and efficient tool.
TOPS calls the Power Eagle-12 a “Hand Power Tool”. With a lot of sales pitches out there, and countless slogans, it's hard to believe any of them. However Mike Fuller, Leo Espinoza and the rest of the TOPS team can truly make you trust their slogans and statements about many of their knives; “Special Ops trust TOPS”, “TOPS Knives are hard to the core”, “A Hand Power Tool”. These aren't cute little sayings that are just simple jingles folks. These are words that I support and believe in. And the Power Eagle-12 is something to believe in. In the jungle, on a desert island or in the heart of the Canadian Boreal forest, this Kuka-bolo innovation is at home anywhere.
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The Small Knife versus the Large Knife
Author :: Caleb Musgrave
Date :: Sun 12/12/2010 @ 10:01
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Analyzing the value of knife sizes in a wilderness setting.
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The small knife versus the large knife:
Analyzing the value of knife sizes in a wilderness setting.
The one tool almost all survival skills enthusiasts and bushcrafters seem to focus on over any other is the knife. Discussions about trapping methods, blankets, tents and fire starting devices are set aside whenever the “knife talk” begins at any campfire. To many this has become a dull discussion, more of an ego-fueled debate amongst men who must compromise for either their lack of genuine skill or something else along those lines. To others however, this subject has become an obsession, which plagues their minds daily. I know some men that have awoken from a fitful sleep, just to describe to me a new knife design that popped into their head in mid-slumber. I suppose it is a passion that I have fueled for myself, testing and handling literally hundreds of designs from countless brands and companies, with an unheard variety of steels and handle materials. When I ran out of knife brands I wanted to play with I commissioned custom knife makers to make me new ones!
Over time I have gotten a sense of what I consider a good knife. However that flows with the more I learn. I explain to many people that the perfect survival knife is the Holy Grail for almost anyone interested in Survival, Bushcraft or any other form of outdoor skills. People want it, and strive for it constantly, but it is unlikely to ever be found. Why? Because someone won't like it. Sure, you may get a few hundred fanatics, but then the critics will be found. This is not a criticism on either side. I have a few knives that many people hate. And many out there have a few knives I hate. A knife is a personal choice, that must suit the user, and not the masses.
However, the one argument that never seems to go away is the debate between a large knife and a small knife. This debate comes from a long history of doctrine, based more on opinion and theory than fact. I am speaking about both sides, so no, I am not attacking any one knife size. Yes, there are indeed medium sized knives, however the big argument seems to focus on the smaller belt knives and the larger knives. The two extremes interestingly enough!
Now, before I go any further, I want to make it clear that I do not flow with one opinion or the other. I carry both large and small knives, and for certain situations (which I will explain later), I prefer one over the other. I am not a devout of any knife dogma out there, especially when it comes to size, and if anyone tries to tell me what I must do to be “right” I will always politely smile, nod and continue on the way I choose to. Why? Because a knife is a personal thing, and no two people are alike.
To fully understand the differing opinions on knife size, you need to understand the minds that such opinions originate from. The two opinions stretch far back, and as mentioned before, have become dogmatic “rules” among the “cliques” of such mindsets.
Let us explain the origins of those that carry a small knife first. Among many cultures in the Northern hemisphere, an axe was -and is still- carried throughout the wilderness. This, coupled with a saw, could perform all the heavy chores. From felling tall lodegpole pines for shelter frames, to splitting firewood, to even butchering moose. In such situations, the need for a knife was small tasks. Such tasks included skinning of game, dicing of vegetables, shaping wood into spoons, toggles. Trap pieces and such. The job did not ask for a cumbersome blade, but a light and small knife capable of doing delicate work. Besides, in such cold weather, a large knife is prone to damage, due to being thinner than the axe.
Now of course, there will be some exceptions to the rule, such as the Inuit Snow knife, and the Swedish Leuku Knife. But even these are not considered extremely large. Most of these Northern climate large knives are light, and not made to do more than cut meat. One knife design however that originated many years ago was the “Big Camp Knife”. Not as ancient as the Leuku, but capable of doing many things. There are even written records of Metis Buffalo Hunters cutting down standing dead pine trees, with their Hudson Bay Knives, for firewood, They immediately sectioned the wood and split it into kindling. Soon after (in these accounts), a buffalo would have been shot nearby and the men -without sharpening or even stropping their big knives- would set off to skin, quarter and butcher the bison. Obviously this shows what a large knife was capable of in a region where mostly smaller knives were carried. Later, the Bowie knife came into being, and that is when North America's fascination with big knives really seemed to stem from.
However, the large knife has it's oldest history in tropical regions. Be it a Panga, Parang, Golok, Bolo or other type of Machete, a long blade -sometimes thin and sometimes thick- has been used and is still used by almost every Tropical culture in the world. Even “uncontacted tribes” are often photographed with steel machetes in South America. The long blade in these regions was not fighting dense or frozen wood, but dealing with springy saplings, tough bamboo and snaky vines. Such material would just bounce or deflect an axe. However, the thin, long blade could slash more than chop, making it more effective. This made it superior to the axe in almost all tropical climates.
Now, due to soldiers and explorers, the larger knives of the tropics began to get more attention over time. Notice how during the Second World War the United States began to pick up Machetes? This was due to the war in the South Pacific. As well, any expedition story of South America or Africa eventually mentions a machete-like knife being used. By the Vietnam War, the Malaysian Parang and Latin Machete were becoming common-place blades for soldiers from different nations. Combine America's ancestry of the Bowie and Canada's history of the Hudson Bay Knife, and you can see why the Machete and other large knives were quickly taken by the civilians as “outdoor knives” for our woods.
Jump ahead by a few decades and we now have the modern era, where gentlemen become lunatics if someone disagrees with their knife choice. Some men believe they can do anything and everything with a giant knife, whereas others believe they can do anything and everything with a knife under fives inches of blade. Very few will agree with the others' points, and so they continue to bicker and even consider the other morons. Let us listen to the arguments and truly break them down by each point;
A large knife can carve just as well as a small knife. While I appreciate a “Can do” attitude, this is not the case. Yes, I have feathered kindling with a parang, shaped deadfall triggers with a kukri, and even pothangers with a machete. However, the results were not as sharp and crisp as the results made with my Swedish knives, or pocket knives. I cannot shape a mask with a knife that is twelve inches long as well as I can with a small carving knife.
A small knife can do large tasks easily. I hear this from many people. Each time, they remind me of what certain Bushcraft instuctors have done with Mora knives; cutting down wrist thick willows, splitting wood with a baton, felling 9 inch trees using the “can opener” method. All of these take considerable amount of energy, time and even strength. Though it all can be done, they are not as easy and simply chopping into the wood with a machete. Comparing the 3-5 seconds it takes me to cut through a wrist thick willow tree with a small knife to the 1 second it takes to slice through the same willow with a large knife might seem like splitting hairs, but consider it this way. If you were to make a large arch-dome shelter, or weave a smoking rack, or make a “ brush raft”, the amount of time and energy would matter to you. The 2-4 second difference starts to add up after a few hours, especially in a survival situation where you may be lacking in food, sleep or water. Suddenly splitting all of that wood for your fire becomes annoying after the fiftieth batoning.
A large knife is only carried by greenhorns. This is not just wrong, it's an insult to a lot of people. I know several old-timers who carry knives with blades longer than 7 inches. I also have studied enough aboriginal cultures in the world to be able to say “Go ahead, tell a South American native he's a greenhorn because of that machete of his” with utter confidence.
A small knife is carried by Liberal Hippies, not real survivalists. Usually said by those that just got called greenhorns. If Mors Kochanski is a Hippy I would be surprised. Not shocked, just impressed to find out. I'm quite sure many survivalists out there would like to picture the man they learned at least half a dozen things from as an unknowing idiot, not a real survivalist. By the way, little known fact, Liberals (the politicians at least) rarely carry a knife of any size on them, they just spend a lot of money on trying to find out via polls whether it is right or wrong to even know what a knife is.
A large knife is a clumsy tool, And this is truly the meat and potatoes of the anti-Large knife argument. Most people consider a large knife not as easy to use for precision work. They think such a long knife is going to miss the target and go straight into their shin or kneecap. This to me is a valid point. A large knife is capable of badly injuring you. And without a lot of practice and common sense, a large knife will injure you. However, with experience, a large knife becomes a precision tool like any other. As well, this “clumsy” feeling is caused by the knifemaker improperly balancing the knife. I have one custom Parang and a production-line “Heavy Machete”. Both of which are so well balanced, that I can look at a willow and “snip” off branches effortlessly, to clean up my stands of willows (makes them healthier and better for future uses). As well, I can sit there with both knives and do decent detailed shaping of wooden implements. I can split and carve a cedar log into a bowdrill kit with the same knife. To me, a survival-oriented knife must be capable of that, and that makes a large, balanced knife precious to the survivor.
A small knife is useless in a wilderness setting. The meat and potatoes of the anti-Small knife argument. The claim is that a small knife can't do anything useful when you are in the outdoors. However, wherever precision is needed, a small knife is superior. Whether it is gutting a fish, skinning a deer, shaping a fishing spear, or making the more complex traps, I prefer a small knife. It just does the job better. Yes, it can't chop down trees, or split wood as fast as a large knife, but it can do everything the big knife can't do.
And that really is the point ladies and gentlemen. A small knife can do what a big knife can't, and a big knife can do what a small knife can't. To me, they should both be carried; the large knife on your belt, the small one around your neck. However, that is for general purpose fieldwork. Many people however always ask the question of “what if you are lost and could only have one cutting tool with you?”.
The answer to that in my opinion is simple; I will have a large, balanced knife. With a large knife I can make my shelter, make my fire and fuel it. With my large knife I can quickly fashion a digging stick and a rabbit stick. With these two items I can begin to search for food. With my large knife I can make basic (but rough) implements. However, to me, the large knife's true value is that it can provide me shelter and fire. Those are what I need to stay alive here in the woods of Ontario Canada. Water is everywhere, and if I have fire, I can clean the water, so fire and shelter are the most important. Add that a large knife can give me those faster and with less energy spent than a small knife.
However, the only time I only have one knife on me in the wilds, is when I am simulating a survival situation. Any other time, and I have two of them on me at least, if not three (I like to carry a Swiss army knife or other folding knife in my shirt pocket for little tasks like peeling apples or gutting a bass).
So where is the situation that I like to have just a small knife? When I am in an urban environment. Carrying my parangs or other large knives is usually not acceptable in the city or towns that I go to. I will often then, carry a knife within perfectly legal limits (check your by-laws folks). In most of Ontario, a knife must be under six inches to be legally carried. I make myself less of a police target by wearing an even smaller knife such as an “EDC Neck Knife”, or simply my Swiss army knife
The point of this writing is simple; use clear thought when it comes to what knife you decide to carry, and honestly, the next time you criticize someone for carrying a knife whose size you think wrong, shut up, and watch how they use it. If you see a man using a machete to delicately carve a pair of chopsticks for his evening meal, or see a lady split thigh thick wood down to kindling with a neck knife, then maybe you just learned something.
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The Ojibway Bird Snare
Author :: Caleb Musgrave
Date :: Fri 10/15/2010 @ 12:58
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A tutorial with some historical reference.
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I have seen videos covering every imaginable primitive trap. From bow traps to simple peg-deadfall triggers. Some of these traps are ingenious and function beautifully in the Canadian woods, like snares and Sampson posts. Whereas others do not function as well, like a deadfall or spear trap.
Sadly many people do not study and research primitive traps, and simply regurgitate what was taught to them from a book or basic survival course. Usually from people who are also regurgitating the information. This makes it almost Dogmatic Law, which you don't want to argue; like deadfalls in Canada (out of ten years, I have had two deadfalls succeed at what about 100 snares have done just as well). That being said, some people don't look into the history of the traps. One perfect example is the Ojibway Bird Snare.
Maybe it's my Ojibway blood, or maybe it's just my interest in primitive trapping, but I have become a little obsessed with this trap over the years. Using weighted snare (or a snare attached to a spring pole), the trap catches a bird alive, holding them firmly against a pole for you to retrieve. The set up is very simple, yet takes some detailed wood working to do.
The four pieces to this trap are;
-a pole with a hole bored into it. This hole must be smooth enough for a snare cord to go through without resistance. Kochanski's method of “cutting” a hole into wood rather than “drilling” is best. The very top of the pole should be pointed, to prevent birds landing there rather than on the trigger.
-A trigger stick. Long enough to afford a perch to a landing bird. It plugs the hole, keeping the snare from sliding shut until triggered. Upon weight being applied to the trigger, it releases, allowing the weight to pull the snare shut.
-A snare. This must be a cord. Snare wire is often too rigid to function properly, and often I have seen the wire snap in mid-action. Inner strands of parachute cord works very well. My favorite natural cordage for this trap is Dogbane. However any strong, flexible cord will do the job. In the photos, I am using Basswood (Tilia) bark twine.
-A weight mechanism. This can be a bent sapling, or better yet, a rock tied directly to the snare via a Killick Hitch. This -when triggered- will yank the snare shut around the feet of the perching bird. The rock method is superior, because it can't freeze into position as easily as a bent sapling. This means in cold weather, the rock-weighted Ojibway Bird Snare can be often used with more effectiveness.
This is requires quite a lot of carving, and experimentation to get just right. However once set up, the system is easy to maintain, and requires little to no actual adjustments.
Put together, the trap looks like this;
And a closeup of the trigger system with the snare;

Note the sharpened tip to the pole, to prevent landing on top.
I like to add a snare toggle to my snare cords, this can be seen better in this photo;
The snare toggle helps prevent the cord from flying out of the trap when triggered. This means the bird won't as likely have its' legs broken when captured. More humane, the more I like the trap. As well, it also strengthens the cord, and if a simple overhand knot is used on the loose end of the cord, the snare toggle makes it simple to make a snare without needing a bowline, or other fancy knots. This means in cold weather I can easily set these up.
The basic trap set up is fairly simple, however it does take some practice to set the trigger into the post snuggly enough to secure the snare cord in place. Often the rock weight wants to tug it shut even when the trigger is set properly. Some try to remedy this by adding a knot to the cord, to stop the sliding. Do not do this. This often causes the trap to not work right at all, often jamming up when triggered. Simply make the tapered end of the trigger stick as snug as possible, and push it in tightly. That's all you can do to make sure this trap works right.
Good baits for such a trap are;
-Berries
-Grains
-Breadstuffs
-Suet
-Birch buds (late winter)
-Tamarack needles (winter)
Now, let us watch this in action. My younger cousin offered to use his fingers as pigeon legs for our demonstration;
The trap is set;

The bird lands, its' weight causing the trigger stick to dislodge from the post;
The trap is sprung, and the legs of the bird are now firmly stuck against the post;
Sound simple right? Well it is. Now scatter bird feed like berries, grains and even suet around the ground below the trap, and set it in a sunny location.
Now, what is this trap made to catch? Obviously it goes for perching birds, and not ground birds. I doubt a grouse would get captured by this, unless I spooked the bird up onto the trap, as they are more often found on the ground, and usually only go up into the trees when roosting, or startled.
So it is meant for a perching bird. Well what kind of perching birds? Would the Ojibway really go through all of this trouble for a couple of grosbeaks and chickadees? Maybe a whiskeyjack, but many n some stories, and being their close friend in the winter time). Ojibway considered that bird too sacred to kill (being the representation of Nanabush i
Perhaps a little history lesson will help explain this trap and it's reason for existing...
The Anishnaube people (Ojibwa, Ojibwe, Ojibway, Chippewa, etc) lived from Minnesota, up into Ontario Canada for hundreds of years. During the early to mid 1700s, the native population of Southern Ontario (pre-Ojibway occupation) was mostly wiped out from devastating diseases like Small Pox and Tuberculosis. Those that survived, fled south and north, leaving the entire area alone for about 50 years or more. During this time a certain bird had a population boom happen, due to the lack of human predation on them and because of lack of competition for food (wild berries and grains). This bird was the one pictured below;

This is known as the Passenger Pigeon. Whose numbers rivaled that of the buffalo to the west. A single flock of them could be up to two billion birds. Because of their numbers, the Ojibway, who now entered a forest completely empty of people, had a simple and easy means of food with no competition.
The Passenger Pigeon would perch before landing on the ground to feed, much like rock pigeons and mourning doves do. This would allow the Ojibway an easy trapping of food to supply the people. This trap evolved specifically to harvest Passenger Pigeons, who were large birds (bigger than the rock pigeon we are all used to) and in greater numbers than any other food resource.
However, upon the destruction of the Passenger Pigeon's population, this trap become next to obsolete and useless. Yes, it can occasionally trap a perched bird, but not as easily as it once had. Trap methods like the Arapuca Bird Trap, and the Grouse Snare have surpassed this ancient snare. However, in areas where pigeons and doves are in high population, this trap can still be used quite effectively.
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Winter Living
Author :: Caleb Musgrave
Date :: Wed 09/29/2010 @ 10:04
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An article focusing on some of the requirements needed to live in the Canadian Boreal forest in the winter
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Winter in the Canadian wilds is a complex subject, which cannot be covered in a book, let alone a single article. Due to the vast challenges that are unique to winter, being combined with the variety of climates Canada has to offer, it is very difficult to generalize it enough to make basic guidelines. Due to this, this article will focus on winter in Ontario Boreal forest. In this scenario, it will be February, with a deep amount of snow (well over one metre deep) and has remained colder than negative fifteen degrees centigrade. Dangers at this time of year in such a region include but are not limited to; hypothermia, dehydration, frostbite and snow blindness.
With deep snow covering the majority of otherwise accessible supplies, the woods wanderer must learn to adapt to the frigid temperatures with intellect and proper equipment. The most immediate danger is hypothermia, which can set in as soon as three hours or less, depending on the situation. Proper clothing and layering is a must. Avoid cottons, simply because the moment the cotton material is wet, it loses over 90% of its’ insulative value. The moisture can come from falling into a creek, snow melting through the clothes, or simply perspiration (sweat). Wool is heavy, but its’ insulative value is second to none. It is breathable and capable of remaining extremely warm, even when soaked. Breathable is better than waterproof in the dead of winter, simply because of the dryness of the air. Remember, this is February in northern Ontario. The biggest danger of waterproof clothes in such a situation is that perspiration will remain in the clothes and near the body, making the woods wanderer colder than they would have been if dry. Take note that even with modern waterproof materials, many northern native peoples still prefer buckskins, woollens and even canvas. Why? Because these fabrics breathe. Cotton should still be avoided due to perspiration, but expensive modern waterproof breathable like Gore-tex are not necessary.
Several layers should be worn, between three and five layers. Five being optimum for extreme cold. The layer closest to the skin should be soft and light. Modern merino wools and polyester “micro-fleece” are incredible as this “Base Layer”. The next three layers should be exceedingly thicker. The final layer should have large pockets, a hood with fur trim (ideally from a wild canine, as their fur shed snow and ice-build up exceptionally well), and cuffs that can prevent snow from getting in. The classic winter parka is a perfect example.
At least three pairs of wool socks is almost mandatory in such an environment. Again, thinnest and softest sock closest to the foot, thickest one closest to the boot. There are several means of footwear for winter. One choice is the classic heavy duty winter boot with a felted wool liner that can be removed and replaced when wet. This can be made from rubber, plastics, or a vast catalogue of different materials, and personal choice is often difficult to render the “perfect” winter boot. Another option is to wear a regular boot inside what is called an “Overboot”. An overboot is simply a piece of footwear that protects the boot and foot from the extreme cold, and occasionally (depending on material its’ made from) from moisture. Such footwear coverings comes in a great variety. If money is strict, a good choice are cheap army surplus “Tent Boots” which are nothing more than a quilted nylon legging attached to a traction tread. These go good with a pair of knee-high moccasins. Another option if money is more loose are the Neo brand of overboots. Avoid steel toe boots, as steel conducts heat away from the body.
A woolen watch cap or skull cap, combined with a large thickly insulated hat. Cossack hats are a great choice for extreme cold, again, fur is very good as shedding snow and very insulative. A balaclava (also known as a ski mask) is extremely valuable for the colder days, when the face is exposed to frostbite situations. A thick, long scarf is warm, comfortable and helpful (used as a sling, a rope, a packstrap, etc). Finally -clothing wise- a pair of wool gloves inside a large pair of mittens is invaluable. Finger can lose feeling quickly in cold weather, especially if in tight fitting handwear. Due to that, wear comfortably fittinf thin wool gloves inside large roomy mittens. If one takes note of the mittens worn by northern peoples, there is usually a cord attached from one mitten to the other. This is often attributed to the fact that such large mitts can easily fall off. The cord helps prevent that. As well, with the gloves and mitten combination, one can slip their hands out of the mitts for more intricate tasks (tying, untying, cutting, etc) without having to put down their mittens anywhere.
Outside of clothing, fire and shelter are precious, but those can be described to better detail in other articles. Simply remember to find dry firewood, and that the shelter must be able to keep ones’ body warm as well as dry.
Travelling for firewood, food, supplies or other things in snow that is powder or loosely packed is difficult. The foot just seems to break right through. This can slowly but surely exhaust the woods wanderer and overtime saturate the feet with melted snow. Skis are often used in Europe and much of Northern North America by descendants of Europeans. However, the thick woods of the Boreal are often too dense to easily trek through wearing cross country skis. On the other hand, a well made pair of snowshoes are invaluable in the Ontario north. Snowshoe distribute the weight of the wearer, to lessen the depth of snow they have to walk through. After a few hours using snowshoes, new timers will often feel sore in the thighs, hips and knees. However after a few days on the trail, snowshoeing becomes as natural as a leisurely stroll.
For such a region, there are several designs that are better than others. The classic Beavertail snowshoe, though good, is not best. Bearpaw, Ottertrail, and Ojibwa snowshoe designs are far superior. The absolute best is the modified or “elongated” Bearpaw Snowhoe. This design is superior due to the length (allowing better strides and weight distribution) , the rounded heel and toe (making it manoeuvrable in the dense woods) and all around lightness. The design is so well thought of, that the majority of “modern” snowshoes, made from carbon fibre, Kevlar, aluminum, titanium and other contemporary materials use the Elongated Bearpaw snowshoe. Now of course this is mostly an opinion that can be argued by anyone who uses another type of snowshoe. However each snowshoe has been designed for a specific region, and the three mentioned (Bearpaw, Ottertrail, Ojibwa) are ones that suit the Ontario Boreal forest perfectly. Experimentation with different models is the key to perfecting the right snowshoe for the right climate and terrain.
There are some who argue that modern snowshoes are superior to the traditional wood and rawhide snowshoe, whilst others argue the reverse. The truth is that both have merit and both have drawbacks. The modern snowshoe is lighter, often stronger and some even fold up to fit inside a small rucksack. However if they break in the woods, it is very difficult to repair them. On the other hand, a heavy, cumbersome pair of “Hickory’n’Hide” snowshoes can be repaired and even replaced by an individual well experienced with a knife and axe.
W. Ben Hunt describes in his book “The Complete How-to Book of Indiancraft: 68 projects for authentic Indian articles from Tepee to Tom-tom” how to make what he called the “Alaskan Eskimo Snowshoe”. This is in fact the Ojibwa Snowshoe, otherwise known as the Cree Snowshoe. Regardless of which first nation it is titled after, the book shows a good template on how to make these rugged, effective pair of snowshoes. If such a pair is unable to be made, he also shows how to make “Wooden Snowshoes”, which are boards of wood (basswood or ash preferably) that are shaped like elongated Bearpaw snowshoes, and the toe steam bent into an upward curve. This upward curve is needed in any snowshoe, to help it lift over the snow, rather than get dug into it.
In the woods, snowshoes can be made by simply lashing evergreen boughs to ones’ feet. Though these are not the best choice, if no other choice is capable, than the evergreen boughs must suffice. The best are the wicker snowshoe. This requires two large piles of thin shrubby plants, such as dogwood, willow or even wild grapevine. Simply weave the materials into two large circles, making the hoops out of several sticks at a time (like wicker). Afterwards make a base inside of these circles by pushing sticks through, making a crude, but very effective snowshoe. There are as many ways to make a pair of snowshoes as there are people wanting to make them. So researching and experimenting is paramount.
On such a large layer of white, like a winter field or forest, the surface is able to reflect a great deal of sunlight. Over between a few minutes and a few hours of exposure to so much bright light, the eyes can begin to feel like sand is being poured over them. This painful sensation can continue for days, even after tears and cold compresses. What caused it? The Ultraviolet light reflecting off the snow slowly caused photokeratitis, which is basically a sunburn to the retinas. It is said that fresh snow reflects eighty percent of UV rays, compared to sand or ocean water (both reflect under thirty percent). Commonly called “Snow Blindness” it can be detrimental and must be prevented at all costs.
The Inuit people carved (and still do carve) antler, bone and ivory goggles to combat. These are made by shaping the material to the shape of the head, to fit comfortably over the eyes. Narrow slits are cut horizontally where the eyes are, and the insides are either painted or charred black. This cuts down on a great deal of UV light, the snow goggles acting like squinted eyelids, and the blackened insides absorbing the light rather than allowing it to remain bright. A pair can be made in under two hours with a light piece of wood such as cedar, poplar or basswood. The Inuit snow goggle must fit snugly to the face if they are to work properly. Therefore it is best to make them rather than buy them, to make sure they fit perfectly.
Ski goggles, or smoke-tinted lenses on sunglasses are modern alternatives. However it has been noted by many outdoors experts that such goggles or sunglasses either let the ultra violet light in from the sides, or fog up, and many suggest the traditional wear of the Inuit people.
If prevention against snow blindness does not prevail, seek medical aide. If that is not possible, bed rest with cold compresses and “artificial tears” to help hydrate the eyes is the best means of recovery.
Protecting the skin from windburn and frostbite is crucial. Frostbite is the freezing and damaging of the dermal layers (skin). This can lead to severe pain, and if not treated by doctors, can lead to nasty infections. Again, prevention is heavily important. Many native peoples and northern explorers have used grease, rendered from animals. Covering the skin with these processed oils helps cut down on wind-chill and even protects against frostbite. Pilots in the First World War often used petroleum jelly for similar reasons. Wearing a face mask such as a balaclava is a good tip as well.
Facial hair catches moisture from breathing and freezes. This leads to a great deal of frostbite cases on the face. Regular shaving helps cut down on this danger. Facial hair does not provide a great deal of insulation in the first place, so do not feel bad about cutting off. Some anthropologists believe this is why Native peoples did not often grow facial hair, same with many other northern peoples. Exposure to such a frigid environment could perfectly well make the bodies adapt to not grow hair around the mouth and nose, just as well as it adapted the typical Inuit to their frigid environment (barrel chest with large nasal cavities to heat the arctic air).
In high stress, the human body produces greater amounts of Urea. This toxic compound is removed from the body via urinating. In frigid weather, the body is definitely being stressed, and due to this a greater amount of water must be consumed, to help prevent dehydration or urea-poisoning. Fresh snow is usually only 10% water, the rest of it being air. Due to this, eating snow will make the woods wanderer often thirstier. Melt the snow by any means possible, whether it be by melting over a fire, near a fire, or inside the shelter. Drink it warm, and if possible make it into tea to assist in acquiring vitamins and electrolytes. Scurvy is a common plight in the north during winter. To prevent this, constant intake of vitamin C is required. This can be done by making tea out of pine needles, cedar needles or any other edible evergreen. The Labrador tea plant is another option, being an evergreen marsh plant that is very common in the north woods that is rich with vitamin C.
A great deal of preparation, practice and prevention is involved in a safe time in the winter woodlands. However, when one takes into consideration how much more time would be involved trying to fix the problem versus simply preventing it, one can see how simple of a life it really is, even in the wintertime. Living in the wilderness when the snow is on the ground, the lakes are frozen and the woods are silent is a peaceful, beautiful experience very few ever witness. To simply snowshoe out with a toboggan loaded with the right gear and the right food (high calories with a great emphasis on fats, carbs and proteins) is an amazing adventure that more of us should try this coming winter.
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TOPS' Outfitters Ax 06
Author :: Caleb Musgrave
Date :: Wed 09/29/2010 @ 10:04
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Caleb tries out a belt ax made by TOPS Knives in deep woods conditions.
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Hatchets, tomahawks and other "portable/belt axes" are an interesting controversy in the outdoors field. In many cases, they are rarely discussed due to the belief that they are dangerous. Whereas in other circles the subject is argued over by what many call "Survival Snobs", to the point that if you don't own a specially made tomahawk by so-and-so, you aren't a real outdoorsperson. In my line of work, I've relied on "portable axes" to achieve many tasks. Yes, a full sized axe is safer due to the length (often hitting dirt before a shin), and has better power for all around chopping (again due to the length). However, for ease of light carrying, the chopping of small trees and splitting of general firewood, I have found nothing better then a large knife or a small axe, such as a hatchet or tomahawk. The other category, where "this axe is the only one to go by" is ridiculous. There are so many different unsung axe models out there, and they need to have the light shone on them. One such axe, I am proud to have been testing for the past few months.
The TOPS OX-06 (standing for Outfitter Ax-06) is without a doubt a new take on an ancient tool. Made of 1095 high carbon steel, the edge on this axe is nasty-sharp. The grip is made from micarta, making the design light, but extremely durable. That being said, the concept of this axe was to accomplish as many tasks as a hunting guide or outfitter would find in their daily chores list, without costing the user any weight issues. Weighing in at thirty ounces, and under fifteen inches in length, this is a small but mighty chopping tool. The blade sports an oval-shaped hole in the center of the blade, that causes a tuning fork ringing with each chop, reminding me of any swordfight in a movie. An exposed lanyard hole hangs at the bottom of the OX-06, and comes complete with a parachute cord lanyard. Finally, the axe is complete with a kydex sheath.
Being made from 1095 steel, it is no surprise that the OX-06 is able to shave hair only after a few licks on a ceramic rod. However, the flexible strength of the steel makes this hatchet able to contend with machetes, parangs and goloks in the quick "snipping" ability. After flicking countless willow shoots to make fish basket traps, I decided to try it on bigger fish. I cut down half a dozen basswood trees, each around fifteen centimeters (six inches) thick. This was to get me a few months' supply of bark fiber for projects, as well as good carving wood for future bowdrills, spoons, and other little items. When it came to splitting, the OX-06 handled the same wood I split with a tomahawk or large knife. But the oval hole in the blade is what interested me the most. Slipping a finger through this, I now had a means to grip the blade for control. Though the cutting edge was straight instead of curved, this grip reminded me of an ulu, and when I used it to peel the skin off of a deer leg and clean some fish, I knew I had a winner for hunting and fishing trips. With one tool, I could make my fishing pole to catch my dinner, prep my dinner, and split the firewood for cooking my dinner. Fantastic!
Out of all of the axes and their relatives, I have never found a sheath that came with them that was secure. Even with my high-end Gransfors axe, the sheath only lasted until the spring after it was purchased. Leather, canvas, cordura nylon, I've used them all, and none last. More so, the majority let water sit inside and rust the cutting edge. However, Kydex is weatherproof, and extremely durable. Being cut proof, there is less chance of the blade getting exposed. Being secure, there is less chance of the OX-06 falling out of its' sheath and becoming a danger. As well, the sheath makes it next to impossible for water to remain inside, due to plastic not being absorbent to water or most fluids (or any fluid that I know of). It comes with a secure belt clip, allowing ease of removal from the belt, rather than having to undo the belt.
After a week straight in the woods, I looked at the OX-06 and examined it for any damage. It had blazed literally over a kilometer of trail, split a week's worth of firewood, and prepared supper on several occasions. The TOPS OX-06 is rarely spoken of among Bushcrafters and Survivalists, and I consider that a great shame. Its' value should not be ignored, in fact, I've heard stories of soldiers using the OX-06 overseas during urban warfare to break through doors (including the metal hinges). Though I doubt I'll need to bust through an entranceway anytime, that shows the durable integrity of the OX-06. To me, it is a fantastic belt axe, anda wonderful woodland companion.
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TOPS Knives Steel Eagle; A Highpoint in Tactical/Survival Knives
Author :: Caleb Musgrave
Date :: Wed 09/29/2010 @ 10:04
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Caleb handles the Steel Eagle knife made by TOPS Knives
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By Caleb Musgrave
The designs of knives in the world now are at such a vast variety, that if you think you need a new knife, it may make you a little dizzy. This goes especially for people seeking “Survival Knives”, or what I like to call “Survival-oriented knives”. Such a knife should be able to do the lion’s share of the survivor‘s chores. These tasks could include; constructing shelters, cutting and splitting firewood, shaping hunting implements, cutting rope, dressing and skinning of wild game, and -in extreme situations- the killing of a wild animal.
The problem that is often found with survival-oriented knives is that they do one of two things. Either they do some of the tasks really well and do poorly at the other tasks, or they don’t do any of the tasks well at all. Knives designed specifically for military/tactical applications are often carried as survival-oriented knives by both civilians and military personnel. So are many bowie styled knives, with tall clip points. I have carried many models of such knives, and have found many of them wanting.
The majority of tasks a tactical knife will be used for rarely involve using it in combat. Though that is a possibility, most military personnel use their knife for more average applications, such as prying, chopping, piercing and slashing. Many military knives have a narrow stick tang. The most famous one, the standard USMC combat knife, has a very narrow tang, which allows distortion and twisting of the knife in its handle under strenuous use. As well, these knives often have a very tall clip point on their tip. This weakens the tip severely, so that piercing and prying can be jeopardized.
As well, many of these blades have saw blades along the spine. If a sawback was made to be used ergonomically, and be strong enough to take the abuse many of us outdoors folk seem to put our blades through, I would consider them worthwhile. Very few knife designs have a decent sawback. Sometimes the saw goes too close to the tip, weakening the tip so that any hammering with a baton, or any prying will snap it clean off. On other knife designs, the teeth of the saw are flimsy, easily being damaged under excessive use or abuse. As well, other designs make the handle and sawback too uncomfortable to work in unison. Finally, some sawbacks are just too dull (being more for fashion than function) to be used in the field.
None of this applies to the TOPS Steel Eagle 107C however. Made completely in the USA, the Steel Eagle applies durable materials, unique handle configurations and even clever angles to make one hell of a cutting tool.
First let us discuss the steel. Made from quarter inch thick 1095 high carbon steel, the Steel Eagle is almost guaranteed to have an edge that is capable of abuse, while remaining hair-shaving sharp. Usually this means the knife will be hard to sharpen, but not with 1095 high carbon steel. Compared to the so-called “super steels” out there, we know for sure from over half a century of trials in the field what 1095 steel can take. If anyone reading this is concerned about giving up the edge retention of their classic Marine combat knife rest assured, your knife is also 1095 high carbon steel. The transition would go smoothly!
I like to test and review knives in practical applications. I won’t chop concrete, or try to fillet rebar. I will put the knife through realistic scenarios, in extreme cold, and wet weather. I will test every part of a knife individually first, and then follow it up with an overall test.
The tip of the Steel Eagle is extremely strong. Unlike your classic “clip points” found on many knives, this tip is backed up with thick steel. The angles put into the tip allow deep penetration while not losing any of the Steel Eagle’s strength. I pounded the knife 2 inches into a pine log and twisted it every which way possible and found not even a degree of distortion. If I tried this with many knife brands out there, they would fail.
The belly of the knife edge was well rounded, and I used it to prepare several fish with ease. When it comes to big blades, it is often difficult to safely and efficiently process small game and fish. The Steel Eagle 107C stood up to the test without any sign of difficulty. I used the belly to peel back the bark on a basswood, two poplars and a birch tree. All of which separated from the wood without hesitation from the belly of the knife.
The straight edge of the Steel Eagle and the handle have an interesting geometry which allows the knife to point slightly downwards. This combined with the weight of the blade creates incredible chopping power in a knife of its size. I would almost compare it to the power I find in my larger kukri. With three swift flicks of my wrist I fell a cedar that was thicker than my wrist! As well, the ricasso on the knife blade allowed me to choke up comfortably for more control, which allowed me to shape that cedar pole into a bow drill kit. The tip of the Steel Eagle bored into the wood perfectly, and the long straight edge sliced cleanly through the wood. The handle and the blade seem to balance perfectly at the ricasso, allowing me almost limitless carving abilities.
The linen micarta handle was strong, and the slight curve of the spine of the handle allowed me that incredible chopping angle. It never felt uncomfortable in my hand, even while splitting wood. There were three holes drilled into the steel around the handle, which some may think allows you to lash the Steel Eagle to a pole and use it as a spear. However I found these more effective as lanyard holes for several different forms of wrist cords. The way the Steel Eagle is held in the hand, allows the one exposed corner of the tang to be used as a “skull crusher”. I used this point to crack several deer bones, and even used it to hammer a few nails while repairing an old fence.
The sawback on the knife cuts through wood like a chainsaw, literally. After three swipes of the saw across an oak log, I had what looked like a chainsaw tapped the log. I went through several two-by-fours and felt like I had a good workout. This test is not easy with any sawback knife I have ever come across. But the Steel Eagle 107C handled it like a champ. The sawback ends about two inches behind the tip of the knife. This allows greater strength at the tip. Which means greater abuse can be lavished onto this beauty! The teeth are made a quarter inch thick, so they too will take quite a beating and remain just as functional as they first were.
The sheath of the Steel Eagle 107C is well formed, with a deep front pouch. Snap fasteners or Velcro used to keep such a pouch closed eventually wear out or break. Instead of what the rest of the market offer, TOPS sheathes have a sturdy clip fastener that holds anything inside of the pouch secure. I would suggest carrying a sharpening tool, some parachute cord and even a mini survival kit. Believe me, the pouch will fit it! The belt loop allows greater comfort (no sagging down of the pants), and the multiple options for attaching the sheath to your person or to your pack makes it fantastic.
Some people may not like the sawback design of the Steel Eagle 107C, regardless of how effective the saw teeth are. Luckily for such people, TOPS offers a non-sawback version, called the Steel Eagle 107E. Everything else is similar to the Steel Eagle 107C except for the lack of a saw.
In general, I would consider the TOPS Steel Eagle 107C a very good survival knife, with a multitude of uses. I used her to construct and deconstruct several shelters; from as small of tasks as cutting cordage, all the way to chopping down the very poles and boughs that made the shelter. I used her to easily chop firewood, and even make a bow drill kit to start my fire. With such tasks completed in minimal time, I was able to sleep the night safe and sound in the Canadian wilds, all thanks to the Steel Eagle 107C.
Caleb Musgrave is a wilderness skills instructor from Canadian Bushcraft, with over 15 years of experience in the outdoors. He is a respected bushcraft teacher, and well known hunter and tracker throughout Southern Ontario.
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TOPS Knives Outpost Command; A serious "Survival Knife"
Author :: Caleb Musgrave
Date :: Wed 09/29/2010 @ 10:04
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Caleb tests one of the most well known knife brands in the heart of the Canadian wilderness
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Survival knives are in many ways drastically different from a "Bushcrafting" blade. In Bushcraft we expect to have multiple tools with us that can range as wide as small neck knives, parangs, axes and saws. In a survival situation, the concept of many cutting tools on one person is less likely, as a survival situation often involves having only minimal equipment such as a belt knife and a survival kit. That is of course, if you are lucky. In such circumstances, that one knife must be able to complete a great range of tasks with the least amount of energy. Seeing as my first actions in a survival situation are to make fire and construct a shelter, I often opt for a larger blade, for chopping and limbing poles, as well as for splitting firewood. However, this large knife must have a blade capable of being sharpened easily, and have a good enough balance for me to be able to shape intricate crafts, such as the pieces of a bowdrill, or the trigger for a deadfall trap.
Many companies that claim to sell "survival knives" sell drastically expensive models crafted from steels that are basically all based on laboratory hype and well paid marketng. Often they are made from high-priced stainless steel, which though rust resistant, does not in my opinion take a good edge. Even many of the high-quality stainless steels won't take kindly to being sharpened on a slab of slate or basalt. Many of these steels have not had much field use, and have not been proven over time to be effective in severe climates, such as the Canadian north. The handles will often be made from plastic, rubber or similar materials, which though rot-resistant, will often fail in extreme cold. Seeing as my duty as a wilderness instructor takes me through my homeland of Canada, cold is a majour issue pertaining to knives. These blades rarely meet my specifications for a "survival knife".
TOPS Knives is a company that has a vast collection of models, ranging from small scalpel sized knives, to blades as large as a machete. Based in the USA, they cater to military personnel and over the past few years their quality of knives have grabbed the attention of many instructors in both bushcraft and survival. Until only recently I have only been able to handle a few of their knives, casually that is. I had not truly tested them out in the field. However, from simple casual handling, I knew the quality of TOPS was not overrated. After several friendly discussions with TOPS president Mike Fuller about his company's knives, I had several knives to try out in the great wilds of Canada. One of these was the Outpost Command. Made from 1095 high carbon steel, the blade arrived shaving sharp. The handle, made from linen micarta was fit well to the steel in a full tang. It felt heavy in my hand, but I could tell that the balance was definitely well thought of in its design. I came sheathed in a combat style ballistic nylon sheath, with a hard plastic liner to protect the sheath from the blade. Though I often speak out against cordura and other nylon-based sheathes, this model of sheath was -like the rest of the knife- well designed and well made.
Testing began early one morning when I went to the wood shed and began chopping up fuel for the woodstove. After stacking a load into the furnace I returned to the wood shed and began using the Outpost Command on ash, maple, pine, birch, beech and countless other woods. At first I was batoning the knife through the wood. Batoning has damaged as varied of blades as Scandinavian knives, Ghurka khukuris and everything in between, that this test is often reserved for last. The steel of the Outpost Command is one-quarter inch thick, and due to this, both the tang and the blade are extremely strong. Add the well shaped profile of the knife edge, and the results should not be too surprising. So effortless was the action of splitting even the densest of woods, that I felt like the knife needed more of a challenge. Instead of using the benefits of the baton, I began chopping wood with the Outpost Command like one would do with an ax. Such a test is effective with blades longer than seven inches, anything shorter usually does not have the power or weight behind it to really "bite" into the wood. Seeing as the Outpost Command was merely five and three-quarter inches in length, it was doubtful that it would even pose a challenge to such a task. Not likely to be successful, I prepared for the knife to bounce off of the wood as most knives of its length do. And yet she split logs that were as big around as my calves! The thickness of the steel, once again coupled with the edge design allowed an incredible amount of weight to be concentrated into powerful blows. The action was like that from a tomahawk or hatchet. I felt the hair ripple on my arms and on the back of my neck in excitement.
After splitting all of that wood, I wanted to see exactly what she was capable of as a general use tool, for detailed work. First I took the edge as is, and ran it through some of the hair on my forearm. She shaved the hair off of my arm as if I had just finished honing her. 1095 high carbon steel has been used in knife making since before World War Two, and has proven time and again that its durability, edge retention and ease of sharpening will keep 1095 as a leader in quality cutlery steel. I also checked the handle. The linen micarta had not sign of change, and it felt comfortable in my grip for chopping.
So what? She can chop and split wood and keep her edge? Can she carve? Again, my prerequisites for a survival-oriented blade include both chopping power and the ability to perform smaller, detailed tasks. Nothing in my opinion proves a knife better than to make feather sticks with it. To make a proper feather stick (a method of effective fire lighting in wet or cold weather) an edge has to be sharp enough to bite into the wood, as well as be thin enough so as to be able to keep the shavings thin themselves. Most big knives leave big chunky fuzzes rather than shavings. As well, the handle and balance of the blade must be in such harmony that the user of the knife can maneuver the blade carefully enough to make long, curly shavings. Again, such a thing is difficult to find in a large survival-oriented knife. After the fifteenth feather stick was done to my satisfaction, I deemed the knife worthy of being an effective survival knife. However, I now wanted to see the practicality of the overall knife and sheath in the field.
Most large knives either arrive with kydex or leather sheathes. These often are worn on the belt of the user, and slowly the weight of the knife, and the poor design of the belt loop on the sheath work together to tug down on the pants of the user. This is not life-threatening (usually), but it is uncomfortable, distracting and in extreme circumstances detrimental to your health (such as paying more attention to trying to hold your pants up than to the slippery rocks you are crossing). The ballistic nylon sheath that came with the Outpost Command has a wide belt loop, that seems to balance the weight of the knife enough that you don't really feel "pulled" by the knife. I think the best way of describing the weight of the knife is "comfortable". With multiple loops on the back of the sheath, the knife can in fact be attached horizontally, hung upside-down, strapped to a pack, etc. These features of a sheath are important in my opinion, because if you feel uncomfortable carrying something, you probably will not carry it often. If you don't have a "survival knife" on you when an emergency arises, than you really are up the creek!
I carried the Outpost Command through thick cedar bush, limbing dead saplings as I prepared them for my task of the day. With video shooting and preparations for students, I had to get a few smoke signal tripods constructed. I figured I would use only the Outpost Command for all parts of the construction of the tripods. I limbed and cut down the cedar poles which were each wrist thick. I then proceeded to use the Outpost Command to cut down cedar and spruce boughs to use as the smoke producers of the signal. Signals are another key element of survival, for rescue is often needed in some form or another, and helping searchers find you can be vital, especially in the Canadian wilderness in winter time. So this is a truly practical test for a knife that would be carried in a survival situation. With the help of the Outpost Command I constructed a tripod in under five minutes. All with a knife that has a blade under 6 inches! These are tasks are often leave for longer blades, tomahawks or machetes.
After these tests I can honestly vouch for the Outpost Command as an effective and even top choice for a Survival-Oriented Knife. The overall design and practical applications that it is capable of performing are incredible. Other features of the knife I would like to highlight are;
· The spear-point is much stronger than a "clip" point knife often seen in bowie-style blades. With more strength in the tip, more abusive tasks such as prying, and piercing can be accomplished with more confidence and less chance of damage to the blade
· The curve of the cutting edge, known as the "belly" is gentle and gradual throughout the entire cutting edge. This means the edge is easy to sharpen on a stone. Also tasks such as food processing, as well as the field drersing and skinnilg of wild game becomes more efficient. In other words, consider this a great bridge between survival knives and hunting knives
· The knife has two choils, one on the blade, and the other on the handle. These "Finger grooves" allow multiple grips, stemming from a chopping grip, all the way to a precision-oriented grip. In other words, these help the knife become really functional
· The butt of the knife is bare steel, meaning you can use it as a hammer, a pry bar, and even a scraping tool. Again, more functions in one simple but elegant and well put-together knife design.
Caleb Musgrave is a wilderness skills instructor from Canadian Bushcraft, a company focused on providing real experience in the northern wilderness.
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TOPS Badger Pup
Author :: Caleb Musgrave
Date :: Wed 09/29/2010 @ 10:04
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Caleb tries out the little but mighty Badger Pup knife and compares it to other common small knives.
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The problems I often find with smaller knife designs are simple to fix, but very few ever do. This first problem is they are often made from a cheap stainless steel. Though there are several high quality stainless steels, most people opt for the lower quality stainless due to price. However, if they simply went to a low-cost high carbon steel such as 1095 or 1075, they would still have a low costing knife steel, and increase the quality ten-fold. Another issue with a small knife is that most designers decide to make them a folding knife. Folding knives are weaker and definitely poses a risk of closing on the user's fingers. However, a small knife is invaluable. First off, it allows more control when cutting or carving, making the production of tools more efficient, and the skinning and field-dressing of wild game (especially small game) more effective and safe. Yes, you can shape a deadfall trigger with a kukri, and skin a vole with a machete, but it really is better to do with a smaller knife. Also, a smaller knife allows for ease of carry. I can keep a small knife in my pocket, another hanging from my neck, and another packed away inside my survival kit or rucksack. Three cutting edges, yet barely any weight or space taken up.
Over the years, I've used everything from Mora Knives, to Swiss Army Knives, and several other small knives. Moras, though great cutting tools, are just too big compared to a Swiss Army Knife. With my German Military model made by Victorinox, I have been able to carve, skin, fillet, whittle and even split wood. Until this year, this was my only option for a small knife. Functional and efficient, I haven't complained, except for when I have it close on my fingers. Swiss Army Knives don't often have a locking mechanism, and all of them fold, which makes them dangerous. Mike Fuller from TOPS Knives designed something that he felt would be the best friend to those who want to carry light, but not give up on security and safety. This creation was named the "Badger Pup", and was made to be the partner knife of the "Operation Badger", a larger sheath knife. Upon its' arrival the Badger Pup instilled a single sentence in my mind; "Man, is this small". Made from 1095 High Carbon steel, with G-10 handle scales, and with an overall length of only 5 3/4 inches, the Badger Pup is probably one of the smallest fixed bladed knives I've ever held.
The blade is 2 7/8" long and was 5/32" thick, and has a profile similar to a Kukri or "Ghurka Knife". I at first rolled my eyes and thought "well that will be useful", due to the old belief that a forward-curved cutting edge is best made on a large chopping blade. However, the moment I tried it out whittling a piece of pine, I saw how well the edge shape worked. The forward curved belly of the blade, recurving back to the handle makes a well-controlled slice, peeling wood as if it was a crooked knife or spokeshave. When deeper cuts were wanted, the Badger Pup accomplished them without hesitation. I could peel apples, dice cardboard, and even prepared a few steaks for dinner. All without having to touch up the edge. The sheath is kydex and securely holds the Badger Pup, using a ball-chain neck cord to let it hang from the neck. However, I often found myself carrying the entire knife within the back pocket of my jeans while in town, and hanging from my belt loop when in the woods, using a carabiner to secure it in place. In my pocket was much more comfortable and unnoticed. Now this is what all pocket knives ought to be like! Secure, strong and sharp!
Over the next few weeks in the field, I noticed the handle was a tad too small for my hands. Being six feet tall with hands over seven inches long and five inches wide, it is not surprising that any small knife would be a bit undersized. However, letting my young cousins and several female students handle the Badger Pup, I realized the true value. As a small back up knife for me, it was second to none. But as a primary knife for a youth, or a young lady, the Badger Pup was superior to any others. Although it was undersized for my big mitts, it accomplished all tasks with stars. I skinned several squirrel, and even shaped a pair of Inuit snow goggles -a crucial piece of winter equipment- out of a piece of poplar. I cut and peeled saplings for arch-dome shelters. I carved bowdrill kits and even shaped a small game bow with the Badger Pup. The recurve blade was incredible at gripping wood, peeling skin, and slicing wild edibles.
To me, a small knife ought to have a good sharp steel, and be fixed blade. On those rules alone the Badger Pup already stands far ahead of its' competition. But the fact that it came with a high quality sheath, and is an incredible carving tool? Well, we're now talking about a horse of a different colour.. a colour never seen before. The Badger Pup is what a Swiss Army Knife wishes it was. Small and light no longer means that you have to sacrifice strength and sharpness.
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Tilia and its' uses
Author :: Caleb Musgrave
Date :: Wed 09/29/2010 @ 10:04
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A look at the tree known as Tilia, Lime, Linden or Basswood
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The Tilia tree is known by many names worldwide. In most of Europe, the tree is known as the Linden, though the English refer to it as a Lime tree. Here in Canada and most of North America it is named Basswood. Growing throughout most of the Temperate Northern hemisphere, from Western Europe, throughout Asia and into North America, it is a widely available tree, excluding in western North America. Linden, Lime and Basswood all come from Old Germanic and English, refering to the fibrous nature of the tree's bark. Basswood for instance comes from the term Bast-wood, Bast being an old English term for fibres to make rope from. The name alone should give away it's most useful secret. The bark is incredibly strong, and if processed properly can make a long-lasting rope fibre that can be used for countless applications including bowstrings, snares, nets, and even lashing large huts together. The bark is best peeled before August, often early summer being the prime time to peel. As is, the bark can be used for crude and simple lashings for temporary projects (I often make my smoking racks and overnight wickiups in this manner). However, simply peeling -or scraping- the outer bark off can increase the longterm flexibility dramatically. In this method I simply braid the inner bark to make a sturdy strap. However, for the simplest means of processing, just find a slow-flowing creek, preferably a marshy or swampy area. Take all of the stripped bark and submerge it, leaving it in the swamp water for about three weeks or more. I often leave it for up to five weeks with all good results, though leaving it in longer can weaken the fibre. Letting the bacterias of the water to eat away at the saps and fibres, you will be left with a bundle of fine fibres that fall apart from each other, and remain very soft after drying. Once removed it will stink greatly! Let it soak in a fast moving creek, or simply run it under a hose until the swamp muck is all gone. I then take all of the fibres and hang them in several tree branches to dry out. Bark fibre shrinks the most on it's first drying, so this is important to let them all dry well before using. In this manner you can have a great deal of very strong cord that can be twisted, plaited, or left as is for sewing, lashing, knotting, netting, weaving and so forth. However, the uses of Tilia does not end with just the fibres. The wood is tasteless, soft and of a very even grain. This all makes it a superior carving wood and very much sought after by carvers and whittlers. I usually prefer to make my spoons, cups and bowls from basswood, it being a light wood that doesn't have any unagreeable flavours that can be added to my meals. The wood burns readily and leaves very little smoke, so when found in great quantity the dead wood is a superior cookfire wood, though it is shortlived when compared to birch or other hardwoods. When seasoned well, it is the best wood for the friction fire in the eastern Canadian woods. The bark in late spring and early summer can often be peeled off in one whole section, leaving you with a large sheet. With younger trees, this makes a superior folded bark basket compared to the majority of other hardwoods, save for birch. Which older trees, this sheet can be flattened out and left to dry (weighted under stones) to make shingles for shelters such as wigwams, conical lodges and even small huts or cabins. However, this takes a great deal of effort if it has not been a wet spring, if in drought, the bark will cling tenaciously to the tree. The buds in late winter and early spring are quite tasty, often reminding some people of a peanut. As spring flows into season the leaves become like a very tender spinach or lettuce, and even when fully grown in summer are quite agreeable as a salad ingredient. As well, if several are stacked together and used to bundle foodstuffs, the resulting packages can be laid on the coals of a fire and left to steam cook, offering a hot, delicious meal. Native peoples in the eastern woodlands often used the basswood for their masks, drum hoops, canoe paddles, nets, basic lashings and of course, in their diets. It is said the traditional clothing of the Ainu people from Japan was fibre from the Basswood tree, and if processed right, this belief is hard to doubt. With just these and many other properties of the Basswood, it is a wonder that it is rarely spoken of except in small circles within Bushcraft and Primitive skills. What is more of a wonder is that Tilia is easily accessible, grows back readily and is too useful to not try your hand at using.
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The Wildness Within
Author :: Caleb Musgrave
Date :: Wed 09/29/2010 @ 10:04
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Add Article Summary...
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Before I go too deep, I want to make this clear. This article (for lack of wanting to call it a rant), is not focused on Abos, Bushcrafters, Outdoors enthusiasts or the like. This is geared more towards a person who has dealt with the wilderness in a harsh way.
I've done my own little expeditions into the wilds. Some with groups, others with classes, others on my own. The ones on my own were always the hardest, simply because I have a very vivid imagination. Once I think about an axe-wielding maniac, however unlikely, it is what I picture being behind my lean-to, or outside of my debris hut, when I know for a fact it is really the footfall of a mouse or grouse. That's part of the test I suppose. Not a test of manhood, but a test of wildness. Can you put away your primal fears to let logic and your true instincts kick in? If not, you may have done what I've done, and slept with your knife on your belt, or a tomahawk sunk into a bedlog within arm's reach. Not a coward, just sleeping with your bases covered.
We have all at one time or another been physically uncomfortable. It's human nature to say "hey, I'm not currently enjoying this". But usually we can grit our teeth and bare it until we can be more comfortable (it's what I did for my tattoos). Or we can bugger off and get away from the uncomfortable thing or things (like I did with most of my old schoolmates). Over 90% of those reading this can obviously go home to a warm, comfortable bed. I'm sure all of us when we were first trying this stuff out went home at 1 or 2 am saying "Screw it, next time I'll stay". What sent us home? Fear? Too cold? Too hungry? Missing of loved ones? None of them are shameful, they're equally the same, uncomfortable.
Most of the people who study survival and bushcraft are not new to the concepts of what is needed to survive. Fire, water, shelter, Positive Mental Attitude, and signals are basically the five things need to keep someone from dying within 72 hours. Food is useful, but not necessarily needed when those other needs have not been met. Again, we know this.
What really gets to a person? Simply, I say “The Wilds”. Other than exposure and dehydration, the only thing a survivor has against them is themselves. Panic, fear, depression, boredom, confusion and ego block the chance to enhance their chances of living by doing something productive. Rather, they sit by an ever dwindling fire, drinking untreated water because they are in too much of a hurry to properly care for it.. The list goes on.
Positive Mental Attitude to me, is accepting The Wilds. Not just saying “okay, I’m lost and in the wilderness.” But actually absorbing everything around you. The trees, the ferns, the stones, the birds, insects.. All of it.. Becoming for lack of a better term “One with Nature”. I’m not talking about spirituality, though it does play a part. I’m talking about opening those senses, accepting yourself as what you are, an animal, not in The Wilds… but an animal who is The Wilds. Instincts sharpen within hours of focusing on the natural landscape.. Even sense of smell can heighten.
Appreciate what The Wilds gives you.. For you’ve fought tooth and nail for it; If you eat cattails for a meal, don’t let a single piece burn up in the fire -you worked too damned hard to earn those calories- , and if it gets burned by accident, appreciate even the smallest, most charred morsel. A single drop of water can change your day from gloomy to brilliant once you begin to become The Wilds. The coarsest grass blanket, the lumpiest pine bough bed, become better than a goose down quilt or a memory foam mattress.
In a way, when you finally return to the modern world -whether you were only gone for a week, or a year -things seem different. A tap that pours clean, cold water is truly a revelation! Pre-made meals at a fast-food joint become shocking (and after a few meals of it.. Will shock you in the bathroom also). If you continue this trend enough.. Living as The Wilds, things change more and more drastically, but your appreciation and care grows just as fast and as severely.
I suppose, in a way The Wilds is Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. But it could just as easily be a rebirth. You could wake up at three in the morning in downtown Houston Texas, in the middle of Christmas and catch yourself swatting mosquitoes that are not there. You find yourself studying people in bars, not due to attraction, but studying their movement; how their tendons and muscles work to move and balance them, how they seem so ignorant of your presence -like a deer being stalked by you back in The Wilds with stone tipped arrows and an ash self bow -it becomes dark sometimes.
The Wilds takes. It takes your friends, who though not angry, will fade into the background. It takes your old life of comfort and warmth. It takes your feeling of safety in our modern civilization. It takes and takes until only a few things are left. No more warmth, just the cold. Skin and bones. Sticks and stones.
But The Wilds gives too; a sense of strength that never existed before. Heightening of senses and perceptions. The world, not just water, but the world, you could easily walk upon. You are The Wilds.. It is a very essence within you. You are no longer a being of false promises and make-belief comforts. You are strong as a stick, as durable as a stone. Your skin and bones are bark and wood. The Wilds gives more than you could ever ask for. Freedom, passion, love, strength, food, water, clothes, shelter -The Wilds is what is left.
Call it Post Traumatic Stress Disorder. Call it “Going Bush”. Call it a reawakening. Call it whatever you want, The Wilds is real. The Wilds is outside every door, and inside every person.
Tread Softly, The Wilds is upon us.
Caleb "Oz" Musgrave
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The Wigwam
Author :: Caleb Musgrave
Date :: Wed 09/29/2010 @ 10:04
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The history and the construction of the traditional Ojibway lodge
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The Wigwam is the traditional lodging of the Anishnaube People (The Ojibway/Chippewa Tribe). Two shapes of wigwams have arisen, due to materials at hand; The conical (tepee) wigwam was common all across the north, while the more well documented dome wigwam was seen in the south of the Ojibway territory.
In the north, where less hardwood is around, straight, dead conifer trees are common. In fact, one is known as the Lodgepole Pine tree due to its constant use by northern tribes as a building material for their homes. Sometimes reaching 50 feet in height, the lodgepole pine can often be found standing dead, towering over the jack pines, and balsam firs. Cree, Montagnais, Dogrib and many other northern Canadian tribes would burn the base of the lodgepoles, due to the lack of steel cutting tools. The hard wood of pine makes it very difficult to use stone tools on. So often fire was the method of felling such a durable tree. They would then use smaller fires to cut the poles to size.
A tripod would be made, and another thirteen or so poles laid onto this until a frame similar to a tepee was created. The further north one goes, the more large birch are found. Also, due to the cold, the bark is often much thicker, leaving the northern Ojibway tribes with the perfect cover for a wigwam. They would use flakes of chert to make a vertical slit from as high as they could cut (using expedient ladders), to as low as they could cut on a tree. Using hot water, and chisel-shaped wooden spatulas, they would loosen the bark off of the tree, then lay it onto the tepee-like frame, starting at the bottom. Often, the weight of the bark alone would keep it in place. However, in windy conditions the bark would be sewn to the poles.
The southern territory of the Ojibway at one point extended from the St Lawrence River, down to the Ohio Valley, then up to Minnesota. Ash, basswood, maple, and oak often grew in this region, all the way into central Ontario (the heartland of the Anishnaube). The saplings of such trees were strong, flexible, and fairly rot resistant. Since straight poles were not easy to find this far south, a new form of wigwam had to be made. The Ojibway here (of the Chippewa, Nippissing and Mississauga dialects) innovated their beloved birch bark lodges into bent-arch frames. Once made, the frame would make a dome that could withstand the weight of two tons of snow, and hurricane force winds. Though birch bark was present, it was not as thick, or as large as it was in the northern regions, so the Ojibway (especially the Mississauga and Chippewa) would thatch cattail and bulrush leaves to the frame. Afterwards, they would add hickory or elm bark on the top, to help shed the rain, and cover the smokehole.
The dome-frame Wigwam is the best documented of the Ojibway dwellings, often being painted by early explorers of the Ojibway Territory. In Ojibway customs, the idea of “The Man of the House” did not exist. The wigwam belonged to the woman, and when a man entered, husband or not, he was expected to pay respects to the lodge owner (the wife/woman) no matter what his status was. If a woman was insulted in her own lodge, it was her right to remove whoever the offending individual was. This included such high ranking village members, as chiefs, medicine men and war chiefs. If a husband disrespected his wife, or a divorce was decided, he would be given his belongings, and leave the lodge. The wife kept the cooking utensils, the blankets, the wigwam itself, and any other lodgings. Only the man’s personal belongings (medicines, tools, hunting equipment) were allowed to be taken with him. Any items shared with the wife, and used primarily in the wigwam (baskets, fishing nets, birch bark vessels, etc), were ceded to the wife. This is perhaps why often marriages seemed to last in the Ojibway culture!
How to construct a traditional dome-framed wigwam (with modern tools, or traditional tools):
Wigwam materials needed:
-15’ x 1 ½”-2” Ash poles (16) Lashed together to make 8 arches (peel and dry in an arch frame, and char ends for 12 inches with a fire)
-15’ x 1” Poles (12 or more) Ash or Basswood, peeled and wrapped around frame to make a solid dome of poles. Also to tie thatching material to.
-50 Bushels (bushels are hug-sized bundles) of fairly dried cattails (seed heads removed, only leaves and stems, preferably no stems either)
- 7-10 large sheets of birch bark (3’ x 3’ minimum)
-Over 300’ of Jute Twine. For lashing together the poles, as well as the thatching and barking processes, traditionally, the bark from the basswood tree would be used for this job.
Tools Needed:
-Knives for peeling bark, branching, and other basic chores, traditionally, flakes of flint, chert or jasper would have been used for this task
-2 Axes, for pounding stakes, and other heavier work
-2 Machetes, for gathering thatching materials
-1 saw for precision cuts
-One burner (Long nail, with head cut off, pounded into a hardwood dowel)
-Post Hole digger, OR a sharp long pry bar (fire-hardened digging sticks were the old faithful tool for this job)
Steps:
1) Peel poles and soak for at least two days in the lake.
2) While poles are soaking, use twine and bark (from basswood) to make small bundles of thatch out of the 50 bushels of cattail leaves. Bundles should be 2” thick or so, try to keep them all equal in size. Let these dry in the sun (Or warm room).
3) Take the 16 ash poles, pair them up, and tie tips (narrow ends) together. After which, using stakes, bend into an arch (use same stakes for all of the poles, to make them all evenly shaped). If pole crack during bending process, cast them with jute twine. Allow to dry for at least two days.
4) Continue to soak the basswood and thin ash poles during this time, they must remain flexible.
5) Drive a stick into the center of the area planned to be the wigwam site. Make a 5 ft long string, with a sharp stick at the end. Drive 16 stakes into the ground at even distances, using the 5 ft cord to measure proper distance for each stake.
6) Use pry bar or post hole digger to make foot deep holes where each stake is marked.
7) Set arches into holes, and tamp soil down firmly (may have to drive stakes in to help keep the frame strong).
8) Salt the earth that is inside the frame. Plants inside can cause problems later on down the road (rotting of the poles, etc).
9) Wrap basswood and thin ash poles around, every 1 ½’ up the frame. Bend main poles where they seem to be sticking out too far, and lash the thin horizontal poles tightly to it.
10) Mark out the most Easterly direction and cut the horizontal poles between the two main poles there. This will make the doorway.
11) Begin thatching process, beginning at the bottom. Cattail thatch should be upside down, and tightly packed against each other. An easy way of doing this, is using one continuous string to lash the thatching on.
12) Once thatching is complete (to the last horizontal pole row), there should be a hole at the very top. This will be the smoke hole.
13) Shake the wigwam, to let the thatching fluff, and interweave from natural settling. This will make the wigwam more waterproof and windproof later.
14) Use the burner to bore holes along one edge of each birch bark sheet. Do this by laying the sharp nail in a fire, and blowing on the coals until the nail is red hot.
15) Use jute twine to lash the birch bark sheets to the second top, and the top rungs. These will help in shedding rain and the least angled portions of the wigwam. They should look like shingles. Keep the most intact, largest sheet from being used until step 16.
16) Make sure the largest sheet can cover the smoke hole, then bore hole along one side. Lash this side down.

(Above Photo; Author with a two person wigwam completed by following the directions. Photo by Tammie Adams)
After these steps, other little projects can be made to make the wigwam more traditional and livable;
A) Take a clay-like mud, and fill the center of the wigwam with it. After surrounding with rocks, coat them with the clay/mud too. This will make a durable, and efficient (not too mention safe) fire hearth.
B) Lash straight poles along the inside of the top of the wigwam, to act as rafter. These can be used to store bags of food, furs and blankets, as well, to suspend cooking pots over the hearth for cooking.
C) Weave cattails into a large mat. Make it large enough to cover entrance, and then some. Lash a heavy stick on the bottom end. When you want to open, roll it up and tie in place. When you want to close it, untie the mat, and let the weight of the stick and the mat unroll it and hold it in place. If pulled out straight, and held up with poles, the mat can also act as a sun-arbor.
D) Use strong thick cord (Plaited jute will work), to act as weights to keep the thatching and bark shingles in place during hard weather.
E) Weave willow mats (or more cattail mats) to make seats inside. These will help keep the moisture from the ground off of people.
F) Gather heavy furs (bear, Bison, even moose) to line wigwam for the winter, or for sleeping.
G) A hollow log at the four cardinal directions, should be fitted under the thatching, this will help with ventilation, and smoke issues. Make sure these are free of snow during winter time.
H) Smoke racks, stretching poles, baskets, fish traps and other projects can often be arranged/built, and worked on, to make the area more homely.
Altogether, a well made wigwam can take anywhere between a week or three weeks to construct, depending on the details added in. Spending a night in such a lodge is a truly spiritual experience. The poles woven together form this upside-down basket and you soon feel a melody of peace wash over you. It is one of many reasons such a shelter is a worthwhile project.
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The Survival Neck Wallet
Author :: Caleb Musgrave
Date :: Wed 09/29/2010 @ 10:04
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Mike Fullers' and Terrill Hoffman's interpretation of what a Survival Kit ought to be.
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I have preached against every single manufactured survival kit I have ever come across. I have always taught the concept of tbuilding your own survival kit. I have admonished factory-made survival kits for three reasons;
1) They are usually in a sealed container that is difficult to open or reseal. This makes it next to impossible for the survivor to truly know what is inside of the survival kit. Often the so-called "survival knife" is nothing more than a razor blade. The trapping equipment leads to nothing more than some dainty "snare wire" which resembles dental floss or sewing thread more than anything.
2) The tools inside are often cheaply made and of poor quality. Very rarely do you find a well-made whistle inside of the survival kit, let alone an efficient compass or fire starter. Again, because you can't open it whenever you wish, it is difficult to know exactly what you have, and often what you have is not very good.
3) The container is uncomfortable and although durable (to a point) becomes almost a burden to carry in ones' pocket.
Mike Fuller from TOPS Knives designed one with Terrill Hoffman though, that he was sure I would be impressed by. When it arrived in my hands I noticed a few things; it was a wallet, not some metal tin that would weigh down my pants, all of the items were in little clear bags, out of the wallet and I would have to put them into the wallet by hand. This suddenly caused me to smile immensely and I was impressed at the simple psychological concept in this process. All of the items being loose and having to be packed away will make the owner/carrier have to physically handle each item. This helps him/her to understand what is in their survival kit, and therefor know what they truly have at hand. This "Survival Wallet" hung from a neck cord, so that it could be worn like those travellers' wallets seen on many tourists. This did away with any need to put it into a pocket and weight yourself down. It also allowed you to keep the survival kit close to your body so it could not get lost. Again, these things assist in countless ways. The survival wallet also came with two plastic D-rings that allow you to clip it to your pack, belt, or fasten it to whatever you wish -though I suggest the on-your-body method. The items inside included; a three-toned flat pealess whistle, a signal mirror, a fresnal lens, a pocket saw, a compass, the TOPS Firestarter (a small ferro rod with two tiny rods of magnesium), a small LED Flashlight by LightHound, a Lansky Quick Fix Sharpener, Military GI Can Opener, Two ranger bands, 24ft of heavy duty Monofilament line (fishing line, sewing thread, etc), a razor with several pins and needles, and an offset screwdriver (with both flathead and phillips heads). Though I want to include every item in detail, for article length I will simply say all of the pieces worked exceptionally well, and point out a few specific highlights that I see lacking in other kits, that Mike's design seems to have rectified. I compared the compass to a Silva Ranger compass, plus a Brunton Compass, and finally a shado stick (sun compass), to make sure I had three different comparisons to give decent accuracy. The one from the Survival Wallet lined up with all three items without struggle. I was shocked; usually the small compasses, even by well known brands are not very accurate at all. Yet this one was pointing out everything I needed to see from the maps, just as well as my Silva and Brunton compasses. The whistle was compared to my Fox-40 Whistle, which is hands-down one of the best signal whistles out there. I noted that the three tones made it very difficult to confuse this whistle with the call of any native or migratory birds. Both whistles stood toe-to-toe with the distance (testing it over a 70 acre farm and throughout the forests). However, due to that three-tone effect, the TOPS whistle is now my prefered carry. As well, due to it being flat, it is out of the way and easily carried anywhere. The Pocket Saw is actually one of my favourite parts of the kit. The blade is a hacksaw blade, which is rivetted to a kydex handle, making a simple folding-knife style saw, which is one of the most convenient saws I've ever used. I used it to cut bones for fish hooks, accurately shape notches in my bowdrill kit, and set the perfect angle on my deadfall and other trap triggers. Finally, the saw edge is very effective for scraping sparks off of the TOPS Firestarter. The TOPS Firestarter is a standalone tool which effectively makes a small pile of magnesium shavings, which can then be lit up with the ferro rod. The size was difficult for me to believe as functional, but after a few days carrying just it in my pocket to start my fires, and it quickly gained my trust. Overall the survival wallet is the best manufactured survival kit I have ever come across. The only two items missing in it are a means of purifiying/disinfecting your water, and a means of making shelter. However, toss in a strip of purification tablets and a garbage bag, and you now have those things. Believe me, the Survival Wallet will fit them, plus any other comforts you think you would like to have. All in all, this is the only survival kit I would ever approve anyone of purchasing, simply because it has surpassed all of my expectations of even a homemade survival kit.. even my own ones!
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The Shango Knife
Author :: Caleb Musgrave
Date :: Wed 09/29/2010 @ 10:04
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Small knife, Big idea
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TOPS Shango
An everyday carry knife is often the last discussed subject. Most people carry some sort of folding knife; whether it is a Swiss army knife, or something custom made. However over my years of experience in the woods and throughout daily life, I have found that folding knives offer many risks. The pin can shear under extreme abuse. The blade on many models can close unexpectedly onto the user’s fingers. As well, the knife is often made from a low-quality stainless steel. Though stainless steel can on occasion be made really well, often it is not, the company opting to go for a cheaper type of stainless than the high-quality stainless steels. At the other extreme, some makers use a stainless steel that is so pricey that it can seem intimidating.
TOPS Knives found a happy medium when they made the Shango Knife with survival expert Joe Flowers. The 440C stainless steel in the Shango is strong, rust resistant and amazingly easy to sharpen! They used some of the best technology on the market to make sure the blade had a Rockwell hardness of 58-60. In simpler terms this means it holds an edge for a long time, but also is easily sharpened. I had her shaving the hair off of my arm within ten swipes on a ceramic rod.
With most skeleton handle knives (basically means the steel of the knife makes a flat handle, without any wood, micarta, leather or other material to bulk up the handle) they are uncomfortable. However the Shango boasts a long, well formed grip, that was comfortable. This was true for my large hands, as well as the smaller hands of several female students I had on a cold weather skills program. With the lack of a bulky handle, the Shango barely weighs a thing. I carved for several hours using the Shango, and didn’t feel any hot spots on my hand. With three holes drilled into the skeleton handle, there are endless possibilities, allowing you to; lash it to a staff to make a spear, extend the handle for better gripping and even to attach permanent handle materials with rivets.
For such a small blade, the strength is surprising, beating most four inch long blades I own. The steep belly curving up to a drop point leaves a lot of steel behind the tip, preventing most of the danger involved with prying. I used my shango as a wedge while splitting cherry wood with my larger blades. Even after twenty minutes of solid abuse, the blade doesn’t even have a degree of warp to it. Before the spine of the knife drops down, a small “hump” is formed, which is very effective for gripping in a skinning manner with the index finger. I used this while dispatching small game on a trapline, as well as when field dressing mammals, birds and fish,
The Shango arrives with a kydex sheath that hangs from a ball-chain neck cord. This combination of a weatherproof secure sheath and a comfortable but safe hanging method around the neck makes the Shango a superior Every-day carry knife. A simple carabiner attached the sheath to the ball-chain, making it capable to remove and fasten the sheath to a pack, a belt loop, a cord, etc. Hanging from the ball-chain were a flat three-toned whistle, a small ferro-rod and a Lansky sharpener. All three of these items help make the Shango package an incredible mini-survival kit. A fire starter, a signaling device and means to sharpen your tools; it's an easy to carry, hard to forget kit!
To go with the ferro rod on the ball-chain, Joe Flowers and TOPS Knives developed a simple, safe and effective means of striking a spark. Often I see students scrape their cutting edge straight down a ferro rod (this includes magnesium matches, firesteels, etc) to try and get a lot of sparks. This method can dull, chip and even draw the temper out of your knife. The alternative most instructors suggest is to scrape the ferro rod with the spine of your knife, with the cutting edge facing upwards, towards you. I mainly trust this method, though I often see the danger of either method being an exposed cutting edge moving close to your hand with rapid speeds that aren't always well controlled. Though I have only seen one injury caused by using a knife on a ferro rod, I concluded years ago that it is not a safe practise. However, with a channeled groove at the butt of the handle, this eliminates the danger. Simply keep the Shango knife sheathed, using the wider surface of the sheath as a comfortable grip. Scrape down on the ferro rod, using the grooved channel to force the sparks into a focused area, increasing accuracy, effectiveness and safety almost three-fold. This scraper is really the winning jewel of the Shango design.
I am usually a "big-knife" guy. That being said, I doubted the Shango could hold up to my needs in the field. However, overtime I began to realize the value of such a small tool. I carried the Shango on my body for three months straight, the lightness of the Shango making it unnoticed. Whenever I required precision carving for deadfall triggers or friction fire kits, I reached for the Shango first. I would consider the Shango an incredible Everyday Carry knife, simply due to it's comfort, secureness, strength and dependability. The steel choice and the effective design of handle for both small and large hands wins the Shango over on me, and I amazed daily by this knife.
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The realities of gathering wild plants
Author :: Caleb Musgrave
Date :: Wed 09/29/2010 @ 10:04
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Explaining some of the dangers and the serious side of harvesting wild plants for food, medicine and so forth
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Introduction
There are many schools of thought regarding the harvesting, preparation and consuming of plants found outdoors. This article is not meant to discredit wild plants as a viable food source -which they definitely are- but to help the reader understand some inherent risks and help them gather safely. Wild plants are definitely of great value to the outdoors person, as a food staple, a tea, an herbal remedy or as a functional piece of their tools. But unsafe practices could jeopardize an otherwise enjoyable pastime or even the safety of the survivor. So to make our outdoor skills more enjoyable, some realistic outlook must be involved.
Flora versus Fauna:
There are very few animals in the forests that cannot be eaten. The majority of mammals, reptiles and birds are safe to consume, as are most fish and some amphibians and insects. On the other hand, there are many plants that have to either be prepared to make them safe to eat, or are not safe to eat at all. Jack-in-the-pulpit (Arisaema triphyllum)is a good example, where the root is a good meal if dried thoroughly or cooked for a long period. Otherwise the painful burning sensation caused by the oxalic acid can lead to more serious complications (due to the poisoning).
Even animals that are suspect of disease can in most circumstances be cooked well enough to kill any parasites or pathogens (this is not always the case, so please research and use educated judgement). Whereas an unripe Mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum )could cause an excruciatingly painful experience, cooked or uncooked.
It is believed the Inuit had (past tense due to modern diet) one of the healthiest lifestyles when it came down to diet. Their diet consisted of very little plant-life except during the summer months. Being mostly carnivorous, they consumed great quantities of protein, fat, vitamin C, vitamin D, calcium (via marrow and bones), and many fatty acids and other important nutrients. On the other hand there is great argument now that grains and other plants have such cellulose that the digestive tract of the human being is not made to break them down enough to gain full nutritional value. This explains how a raw vegetable diet helps the dieter lose so much weight!
Does this mean plants are useless as food? Of course not, but be aware that you must have very good identification of the plant before harvesting it. In summer the amount of blueberries (Vaccinum myrtilloides) that can be harvested from a single field is astounding. On the other hand anyone that has tried hunting moose (Alces alces) can attest that it is rare to find a large enough population to take your pick as to which one you will take home for dinner. Obviously the argument could be held that a moose feeds more people then a basket of blueberries, but the point is that the berries were much easier to find and harvest.
Dangerous Lookalikes:
As previously stated, several plants are dangerous to consume. What is more dangerous is the fact that several look like very safe to eat plants. Some call these “Good Twin” and “Evil Twin” plants. If Cattail (Typha) is the good twin, with all of its’ useful and edible values, then Blue Flag (Iris versicolor) would have to be the evil twin, due to iridin and glycoside toxins in it . Such toxins would quickly leave the consumer in severe pain. As evidence; a case of confusion between Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus) and Blue flag lead to several poisonings of First Nations pow wow singers, who use the root of Sweet Flag to soothe their throats after long periods of singing.
Poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans) has often been confused with Sarsaparilla (Smilax regelii) due to similarly shaped leaves (though Sarsaparilla usually has five leaves, unlike Poison ivy which has three). While Wild rhubarb (Rumex hymenosepalus) has been often confused with Greater Burdock (Arctium lappa) due to similar growing habitats and leaves. What causes even greater confusion is many people referring to the greater burdock as “wild rhubarb”, which it is not even related to.
The only means of lessening the dangers of such misidentifications is to thoroughly learn the differences. Wild plant classes are better than books or videos, because the instructor/teacher can answer questions the student may have. As well, hands on practice beats words written by another person any day of the week when it comes to memory retention.
What lies beneath:
Not all of the readers of this article reside in wild or rural regions. Most likely a good many will be from urban environments like Toronto or Buffalo. Due to this, any wild plant harvesting may only happen in town parks or when weeding the garden of dandelions (Taraxacum) and plantain (Plantago major). In the past few years, many types of pesticides and herbicides have been banned. One reason is due to the toxic chemicals found in them, such as DDT.
However, such chemicals can reside in an area for years, sometimes decades. Many urban plant gatherers will not harvest from an area that has been sprayed in the past thirty years. When I was younger and not as wise, I once became extremely ill due to harvesting cattail roots from a ditch near a town park. All chemicals ever sprayed on the fields and flowers in the park eventually washed off and leached into the ditch. Cattails being a filter plant absorbed and stored the chemicals. I had a concentrated dose of chemicals that could have potentially killed me.
So research the history of where you are harvesting, and avoid any wild plants near roads (no matter how temptingly large they may be). Petroleum by-products can contaminate a plant and not ever be known until when they are treating you in the hospital. This being said, research all wilderness areas that you may be harvesting from as well, seeing as how many mines exist in the north country, who knows how many plants may be contaminated.
Famine:
Many people boast that they know plants so well that they could survive indefinitely on them. This may be true to an extent, but do such people ever take into consideration the fact that famine is not that unheard of in the wilds? Consider the early springs of 2008 and 2010 in Ontario. Both were very poor years for harvesting maple sap. 2008 was just too cold, and 2010 was too warm. Add the invasive species (insects, fungi, plants, etc) that may arrive and wipe out the native plants. Or a sudden frost, an early winter, a long summer drought, or simply the plants dying off in a certain area for untold of reasons, and suddenly the ability to thrive off of nothing but the wild plants becomes more difficult.
Think logically and research. Study how the wild plants respond to different stresses. Understanding the climates and terrain each plant requires to survive will help in the near future as much as it will in the long run.
Moral Issues:
The wild plants we love to harvest seem to be endless. So much that I know several people that proudly announce that they picked over twenty pounds of blueberries in a single weekend. I also notice many signs stating Wild Leeks (Allium ampeloprasum) for sale when driving through Central Ontario. Such harvesting can cause many issues.
Firstly is the fact that throughout history, the over-harvesting of any species has almost always lead to the demise and/or extinction of that species. Ask the beaver, and I’m sure they will argue that their pelts weren’t worth their almost complete destruction.
Secondly, many animals depend heavily on these plants, and taking more then we need at one time is dangerous for them. What may seem like a nice addition to a few meals to us is the only choice for survival to others.
Thirdly is the fact that what you eat now may not be there tomorrow. If we eat all the plants around our shelter, then what will we depend upon when after two weeks in the wilderness we are too weak to do more than crawl out of the debris hut?
Harvest conservatively, and only harvest large quantities when you have no choice, and can guarantee preserving whatever you harvest. Leave at least one out of five things that you harvest. That means if you find thirty leeks, leave at least six leeks. If you could harvest five hundred blueberries, leave one hundred still on the stem. This means the animals, the plants and you have a chance to survive another year.
Conclusion:
There are many reasons to be full of caution now when gathering plants. However, this article was not written to scare the reader away from harvesting Nature’s bounty! Wild plants are rated by many nutritionists as being better for you than farmed fruits and vegetables. It is also a great way to enjoy the wilderness, or even your own backyard of “weeds”. But the better you know the plants around you, the better off you will be. Always try to use three of more different references when identifying plants, and if possible, contact local nature clubs to see if they know any people nearby that would be offering plant walks. Such an education can increase the safety and therefore enjoyment of any plant gathering.
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The Lodge Dutch Oven 10"
Author :: Caleb Musgrave
Date :: Wed 09/29/2010 @ 10:04
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Caleb reviews a Lodge dutch oven, while telling stories to make your mouth water!
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(A perfectly baked loaf of bannock made in the dutch oven)
About four years ago, I was working at a hardware store in my hometown. As an avid Bushcrafter, I was always looking at the products, thinking of what I could use them for. I had bought many axe handles, a few hundred feet of snare wire, and the materials I used to construct one of my favourite billycans (even to this day it finds its way into my rucksack). However, one aisle in the store always caught my attention for a moment or two; cookware. Stainless steel frying pans, copper lined pots, enamel plates, and ceramic crock pots lined the shelves, displayed for shoppers and clerks like myself alike. I always liked to see if there was possibly something in there I could use to cook with in the woods. One day while dusting these shelves, I found a box under several other boxes. I was in the mood to get really clean today, and decided to empty the shelves and give them all a good wipe down. As I lifted this box (and the inch of dust on top of it), I noticed the words “Cast iron”. A light sparked off in my head and I wiped off the dust, hoping to find a new frying pan. However, what I found was a large, heavy dutch oven, that was only a year old on the shelf (how that much dust accumulated I will never know). I could not find the price tag, but the employer still remembered the price, she was apparently a big fan of dutch oven cooking. I was soon to understand her reasons.
I went home after cleaning the shelves, and while going through my old camp craft books, I came across a few pages on the “proper dutch ovens for the woods”. Figuring the subject was already brought up that day, I might as well see what makes a good dutch oven. According to the author, the best type has a flat lid, with a raised rim. Poor ones have a convex lid. This is due to the need to heap coals and hot ash on top of the oven during baking, the convex lid would just dump all of the coals and ash back onto the fire. A flat lid would let the coals be manoeuvred easily, and the rim would hold them in. Three little legs at the bottom would be useful, because this would help the dutch oven sit over the coal, without falling over (four legs, according to the author, is more difficult to balance in a pile of coals).After reading the entire chapter on wilderness cooking, and rereading the subject of dutch ovens and dutch oven cookery, I decided to pick one up, just to try.
I went in on my day off, and examined the Lodge 10-inch cast iron dutch oven at my work. Identical to the descriptions in the book! That sold me, and my employer, being excited for me, decided to drop ten percent on the price, even though I had the exact money there with me anyways. Eighty dollars later, I was the proud new owner of a Lodge 10-inch pre-seasoned cast iron dutch oven. This variety has a ten inch base, and holds four quarts. While living where I was at the time, I never had the time to use it. So it stayed on my gear shelf, until we moved to the Kawarthas. While it sat in a box in the Kawarthas, I was living in Indiana, down in the states. While there, I mentioned to my girlfriend, with her father in the room, that I bought a dutch oven. Soon they were telling me stories that all revolved around their moments cooking with dutch ovens. Apparently these things had a huge following!
The day I returned to Canada, I had some cousins visiting, and my folks were there as well, so I figured I would try out the dutch oven finally. I started up a fire of willow and cedar shavings, trying to get hot, long lasting coals. After about twenty minutes, the fire had burned down to a big bed of coals, and I set the oiled dutch oven on top of them. Being pre-seasoned, all I had to do was oil the oven. I placed a small venison roast into the oven, set the lid on top, and with a board of wood, scooped and piled coals on top of the oven. The amount of meat, in the amount of heat, it would be cooked medium to well done in an hour and a half. As the meat cooked, I added split willow around the coal bed, to make sure the coals would continue. After the hour mark, I rolled out about a dozen small biscuits made from a bannock recipe of mine. Once the hour and fifteen minutes mark came by, I removed the roast and finished it in my cast iron frying pan. I dusted the bottom of the dutch oven with flour and piled in the bannock biscuits. In fifteen minutes the meal was completed. I had never had a simpler outdoor cooking session, it was easier then barbecuing in a lot of ways. I was hooked!
Over the last few years, I have cooked many meals for myself, friends, family and even students with this dutch oven. The first thing I have to say about it, is do not expect to go backpacking with this thing. Weighing in at well over two pounds, and well over a foot wide at the mouth, these things do not pack lightly! So sorry ultra light backpackers, but this baby isn’t for you. However to those who love to use base camps, or even for car campers, this beauty is fantastic.
While teaching and camping this past month, I had to feed six or more people at a time. We baked a black squirrel with it for one class of students. Another got to taste deer heart stew one evening, and the next night I inverted the lid to act as a griddle, and fried up two heart steaks. Finally, while a friend from Australia was visiting, we really put the dutch oven through the paces.

(Above; Black squirrel baked inside of the Lodge Dutch Oven)
The first dinner we made with the dutch oven was a “bush pizza”. Simply bannock laid out flat, with pizza sauce, sliced cheese and other toppings, baked until identical to a deep-dish pizza. This was made perfectly. The next time we made one, I fried some diced up moose sausage on the inverted lid, and added it to the pizza, even better!
After three days at the base camp, we spent six days deep in the woods. Of course this meant no dutch oven. With constant rain and cold weather, and only pine, spruce and the occasional piece of birch or fatwood, the meals were barely anything special. Our attitudes dropped to nearly hating the out of doors, and it wasn’t just our attitudes that dropped. With just six days in the woods, our diets consisted of approximately 800 calories per day. The difficulty of cooking, as well as the need to focus out meagre fire towards boiling water for purification and for warm drinks made us lose considerable amount of energy. I had been woods wandering for years, and have never had this much difficulty in one week to feed myself!
When we returned to our base camp, we decided to try something; 90% of our meals had to come from the dutch oven. Temperatures and weather were similar to our 6 days of misery. The only difference was the plenty of hardwood available. The downfall to this, was that the wood we had around was mostly green, even the wood that had been cut and piled for well over a year. None the less, we gave it out best, and with several big, thick, beautifully baked bannocks, our moods were a complete opposite of the sopping wet messes they were up north. Another pizza was attempted, and on the final night, I emptied an entire bottle of cooking oil into the dutch oven, heated it until sizzling hot over a thick bed of coals, and taught my Australian friend an old Native American delicacy, Frybread! This night was particularly horrible, with rain coming from every which angle. Even with the giant tarp we had strung up over us, we both got fairly wet. But the frybread came out beautifully, and we decided to have another batch the next morning. This time however I would try something new. We had a bag of berries, and a jar of peanut butter. I rolled out the dough, piled a dollop of each in the centre and folded them like a perogi. This was probably the best breakfast in the woods I ever had.
(Left; Breakfast of berry frybread)
Tools for working with a dutch oven are simple. Tongs can be made in the woods out of a piece of willow. These help in frying, roasting and adjusting coals around the dutch oven. A scoop of some sort is vital for the lifting of coals on top of the dutch oven. Folding shovels will work, but I often get by with a flat board of split wood, scraping a pile of coals onto it with the tongs and using the board much like a dustpan. Other useful tools are a ladle or large spoon, a hook to lift the lid with, and a blowpipe to help stir the coals back to life. Pot-hangers can help you adjust the amount of heat inside the dutch oven, by lifting or lowering the oven over the pile of coals. This helps when you wish to just warm-rise some bread, or deep fry some froglegs!
The dutch oven is a fantastic tool for any base camp or outdoor classroom. I am an extremely proud owner of the Lodge Cast Iron 10 inch Dutch oven., and now a proud member of this unnamed dutch oven fan club that seems to hide among woodsmen and woodswomen. Anyone looking to expand their camp cookery skills, I suggest you pick up a good, sturdy dutch oven . If you are looking for one, I would highly suggest the Lodge brand of dutch ovens that they sell for camping. They even have a cookbook for dutch ovens, in case you don’t know where to start.
Tread Softly,
Caleb Musgrave
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The Common Snapping Turtle; A symbol of Survival
Author :: Caleb Musgrave
Date :: Wed 09/29/2010 @ 10:04
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A look into the life and history of the common snapping turtle, from the eyes of a woodsman
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I teach bushcraft whenever I can. Here in Ontario, the seasons are incredibly different. And each brings with it different flora and fauna to study, often in great detail. This past June, during the wetland bushcraft course was no different!
Where we were camping, was on Rice Lake, on the Hiawatha First Nation reserve (Anishnaube Akii/Ojibway Territory). We spent a lot of our time feasting on cattails and milkweed pods, building fishing weirs, and often getting close to our local neighbour named Chelydra serpentina.
Who? The name when spoken conjure up in my mind, some hideous dragonesque creature from the depths of the darkest waters. Very similar to the descriptions of Cuthulu! And sadly, that stigma often lands upon this beautiful cousin. The Common Snapping Turtle, is native specifically to North America (however can be found in South American countries as well), being found almost as far north as Hudson Bay (though not often further north than Algonquin Park).
While on the wetland course, the students I had with me were very interested in studying these beings up close. Of course, the name alone was reason enough for them not to get too close! The snapping turtles were found on the banks of the marshlands, right along a backroad, digging nests in the gravel. Snapping turtles rarely leave the waters. Usually only the females leave their swamps to dig their nests and lay their eggs. However on occasion the adults (and young) can be found basking in the sun. Though more often they do this by floating on the surface of the water, often to the surprise of a bushcrafter who just fell out of their canoe...
I carried an Australian styled fishing spear with me during the entire course, complete with an American Indian styled "Atlatl" dart thrower (didn't have the time to make a genuine Woomera to accompany the spear). This is a very useful tool when in the wetlands. I used the butt of the spear to prod one of the females we happened across, to demonstrate to the students her powerful jaws and speed. She immediately reared up on all four legs, which suddenly seemed a lot longer than I remembered a turtle's legs being. She emitted this strange hiss that didn't seem to come from her mouth, but from the shell (though it was from the mouth, the sound just seemed to echo from the shell). I prodded again, hoping to demonstrate how vicious of a bite these shelled creatures have. Nothing. I tapped the shell, hoping to watch her long neck (which can reach halfway across their body, and sometimes more) lunge out at the spear. Nothing. I rested my spear in front of her, and turned to my students to tell them that usually these turtles were much more aggressive, when suddenly I felt the end of my spear splinter with a loud "SNAP!", I turned in time to see her slowly bring her head back to it's original position. We left her to finish laying her eggs, and went on with our day.
Snapping turtles are omnivorous, and will often scavenge any dead substance in the water, whether it be a dead fish, or rotted plant matter. However, they will actively hunt, feasting on small to medium sized fish, crayfish, mussels, insects, amphibians, rodents such as voles, and reptiles such as snakes and smaller turtles (including infant snapping turtles).
Their relative, the Alligator Snapping Turtle Macrochelys temminckii, whom resides in the southern United States, is much larger than the common snapping turtle, however is not as aggressive as the common. The Common Snapping Turtle is recognized for the deaths of many goslings and ducklings each year throughout Ontario. Adult ducks and geese (even swans) are sometimes found with missing feet or toes, often caused by being maimed by snapping turtles. While heading to the bay where we would be harvesting cattails (Greater Reed-mace), the students and I came across a very large painted turtle, whose shell had a large section missing from it. Still alive, healed and scarred, this old girl was a survivor of a snapping turtle attack. There are countless stories of snapping turtles amputating the digits of people. I was raised with stories from my Ojibway grandmother who witnessed a boy losing a very large section of his heel to a snapping turtle he accidentally kicked while swimming. Though it seems unlikely that an animal that looks so slow could do so, their powerful jaws, and aggressive tendencies give good reason to steer clear when you find them.
Being so vicious, has done some good things for the common snapping turtle. They cannot fully retract their heads into their shells, which other North American turtles can do. Because of this, they are left exposed, and in theory, easy to kill by predators. However, except for the rare otter, and man, Snapping turtles don't really have that many predators. I suppose the other predators learned long ago what my spear learned during the wetland course!
As well, their diet supports their ability to survive in almost any water body in North America. Seeing as I named otters earlier as a predator of the snapping turtle, I'll describe what a park ranger told me when I was learning Bushcraft in Algonquin Park;
Most lakes in Ontario, and North America, can support perhaps 2-3 families of otters (four to six adults, plus their young). The fish after that, will decrease in population, and due to starvation, the otters will have to move, or die. However, that same lake can support up to fifty adult snapping turtles, plus the hatchlings. Why? If it lives/lived, they'll eat it. And seeing as they don't need to eat constantly to survive, they can take long stretches between meals.
Another interesting subject that comes up with snapping turtles and their survival, is their eggs. Ron Brooks, a professor of Zoology, was recorded in Norm Quinn's book "Algonquin Wildlife: Lessons in Survival", of doing research on the nesting and survival rates of snapping turtles. According to the book, unlike other species, like rabbits, which breed a great amount of young but have short lifespan, the mortality rate of adult snapping turtles is very low (disregarding human involvement that is). It is believed that wild snapping turtles can live up to 45-50 years, though this theory is hard to pin down, because after a certain length of time, the turtle's shell scales no longer grow. So measuring the age of the turtle becomes impossible after 45-odd years.
Other species that live long periods of life (moose as an example), give birth to very few young. Often 2-5 in their lifetime. But the Snapping Turtle can lay up to eighty eggs in one season. Females will lay each season. The females can lay eggs for many years of their lives. So that is a lot of eggs!
Odd though, is the fact that the mortality rate of infant snapping turtles is nearly 99.9% of them. Foxes, raccoons, vultures, gulls, ravens, skunks, large mouthed bass, pikes, and other snapping turtles all pose threats to the infants throughout their lifetime. This includes their time in the nest, where foxes, skunks and other critters will sniff out the eggs!
And yet, the turtle's population has never seemed to naturally lower. I say naturally, because human involvement is lowering the population through; hunting, poaching, vehicle collisions with nesting mothers, and the destruction of habitat. But in nature, the snapping turtle populations never seem to lower. Nor do their numbers rise (remember, the babies don't often survive). So in a simple, dramatic way of putting it.. snapping turtles.. just.. don't die...
Mother turtles will travel extensively over land, to find the perfect soil (sandy or gravel, in warm sunny places) to lay their eggs. If harassed by vehicles, people or other animals, they will abandon a nest in mid-dig, and travel a far distance to dig again. I accidentally bothered one mother enough to make her travel deep into the bush, climbing over metre thick logs, and under fallen trees, just to find a new site. I tracked and followed her at a far distance, and once she found a new nesting site, I left her to do her business.
Native people have had a close relationship with snapping turtles. When the nesting season began, Ojibway youth were sent out to prod the sandy banks of rivers, lakes and swamps with sharp sticks. Once the stick was found covered in yoke, the children would dig up the nests, harvest the eggs and bring them back to the village as treats.
Fishing weirs were often found with snapping turtles within them, and because of this, they frequented the diets of Eastern Woodland tribes (Ojibway, Iroquois, and Menominee). Midden mounds found along the shore of Rice Lake had snapping turtle bones within them from long ago (well over 2,000 years). The meat -according to many Anishnaube elders- comes in seven different textures and tastes, ranging from fish, to tenderized lamb. It's a favoured dish served within the Anishnaube Akii (Ojibway Territory) throughout early summer.
The claws are often found on necklaces, possibles bags, and medicine bundles. The body, including shell, head and neck, would be carefully sewn shut, filled with birds beaks, wild cherry stones, or even small pebbles or mollusc shells. The neck would be stretched out tightly (again, a long neck), and braced out to dry with hickory or ash splints. Wrapping the braced neck in rawhide, this item was used by many Iroquois holy people as a rattle/shaker. Other native tribes made similar rattles.The carapace (Top shell) was/is used as a bowl for soups (including turtle soup), and as a berry basket. Other uses for the carapace have included; shields used by some tribes during pre-firearm warfare (these shields can still be seen amongst some Northern Traditional pow wow dancers), and drums,. If the open side is covered with rawhide and bound tightly, a small hand drum can be produced, though the sound is not very popular. Bags are also made from the carapace. If the back is covered with deerskin or fabric, a shoulder strap can be attached and made into a very attractive possibles bag (smaller shells used similarly as belt pouches)
The plastron (Bottom shell) was often scored with flint tools and broken into flat disks, used as pendants, pieces for traps, animal calls, and even as dinner plates. Other uses can include; Beads, goggle lenses (often seen by Malaysian cultures with sea turtle shells, which they scraped thin enough to become translucent), playing cards can be made from them. Simply scratch the numbers and suits onto the disks (Primitive Poker anyone?). The dried heads have been used as decorative pieces for "spirit sticks", and other ceremonial tools.
The Iroquois and Algonquian tribes believed the world rested on the back of a snapping turtle. Due to this, they called their homeland "Turtle Island". Interestingly, if you look at a map of North America, you may just see this. Newfoundland and Alaska make up the front legs. California and Florida are the hind legs. Mexico is that thick serpentine tail. The arctic islands shape beautifully into the head, and the rest of North America is the shell. I find it absolutely beautiful how a native legend suits the geography that well.
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The Chris Caine Survival Tool
Author :: Caleb Musgrave
Date :: Wed 09/29/2010 @ 10:04
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The Medicine Knife
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The Chris Caine Survival Tool (CC-ST)
Chris Caine is a survival instructor from the United Kingdom. He is well known throughout the country, through his school "Chris Caine Survival". Many years ago he was shown a design by survival legend John "Lofty" Wiseman for a knife. This knife was originally inspired by the Malaysian "Parang", a large blade not unlike a machete, but with a thicker blade and a more robust tip. Over the years he dreamt of this blade, modifying it in his head, on paper and eventually through computer programs with his sister company "Wilderness Essentials". After years of working on the prototype, he went to A.Wright & Sons, one of the last original Sheffield Knifemakers in the UK. Early in 2010, the prototype was completed, and he had in his hands the first "Chris Caine Survival Tool" (CC-ST for short).
In 2009 Canadian Bushcraft -the wilderness school I work with- partnered with Wilderness Essentials and Chris Caine Survival to begin teaching their British students here in the Canadian wilderness. While speaking with Chris (and his colleague Matthew Lodge from Wilderness Essentials) the subject of field testing this modified parang in the Canadian backwoods came up. I agreed wholeheartedly to test out the Chris Caine Survival Tool in real outdoor settings, in real situations. After they ironed out the bugs with the first knife (such as changing the brass pins to stainless steel, and upgrading the sheath to tough but flexible 5mm Gun Leather), they sent me the fourth one ever made, and the first one to ever be on North American soil. Needless to say this felt like a historical moment to myself, though most of my friends raise an eyebrow when I compare it to the Armstrong on the Moon.
I have been curious about handling a parang for many years. I have wielded machetes, goloks (similar to parangs), and even kukris. However the traditional parang had a few worrisome specs. First off many of the traditional parangs simply have rat-tailed tangs. These tangs are heated and bored into the wooden or horn handles, and usually epoxied in. Some are pinned into place, but not all of them. Without such a pin, the blades are in danger of flying out of their handles while in use and becoming deadly projectiles. As well, such tangs are very thin compared to the robust full tangs seen on many Western-made blades. This can break if strenuously used. For the native peoples of the South Pacific, the traditional parang is their lifeline, and they are trained since childhood with these long bladed tools. So it is unlikely that such failures happen often to these blades in their makers' hands. However, for a 6 foot tall Canadian outdoorsman who is known for shattering Nepalese kukris and breaking hundred dollar Swedish axes, I prefer having something more substantial to protect myself and my loved ones while I handle a tool.

(Above Photo; Lining up a shot with the CC-ST on a willow sapling.)
(Below Photo; One Hit, one cut, the results of the previous picture)

Chris -with his friends at Wilderness Essentials (Matthew and Robin) and A.Wright & Sons- basically canceled out any of the problems I could conceive a knife like this having. It had a solid full tang, complete with a conscientiously-harvested rosewood handle. The grain of which is selected at the highest standards the knifemaker has. The blade is 5mm thick and made from #75 Leafspring steel, which has been tempered to a Rockwell hardness rating of 52-54. All of that jargon means that the steel of the knife has high flexibility and strength, all the while leaving the cutting edge both durable and yet easy to sharpen.
The traditional parang usually comes with a wooden sheath, which is good to some extent, but can rot or fall apart (as my kukri sheathes all did). Chris opted for 5mm Gun Leather, which is some of the toughest leather you can get for a scabbard. And yet, due to master leatherworkers, the scabbard is comfortable and flexible, contouring to the body and not being a burden to wear. The Snap fasteners on the sheath are designed so that when you pop open the sheath, your fingers are far away from the cutting edge, yet still have control over the removal of the blade.
All of this is good in theory. Chris, Matthew and Robin however went a step ahead and began beating around the woods of Great Britain with the CC-ST. Chopping, hacking, peeling and carving their native woods, they felt confident in the tool. But could it survive in the Canadian hinterlands?
The knife arrived in February 2010, and I immediately put it to work erecting a shelter. Within an hour the entire hut was complete, and the only tool used to build it was the one Chris gave me. From there I began to split different types of wood, from cedar all the way to black spruce. None of which made the Survival Tool struggle. The northern Canadian woods have shorter growing periods than their southern relatives, this means for many species that their grains are much denser, making the wood tougher to cut through. Yes, some southern woods are incredibly tenacious, but anyone who has had to cut a few dozen tamaracks or some Canadian hickory would have to agree there is a close tie. I have to sharpen my axe at least once between each tree I cut down (approximately a 20cm thick tree, not a sapling of course). Even the high end axes -such as my Scandinavian Axe made by Gransfors- have to be touched up between cuttings. The CC-ST was used three weeks straight in the woods, and only needed the occasional swipe of a ceramic rod.
(Below Photo; The CC-ST Parang slices through hardwoods effortlessly)

I decided to see what it could do for speed one day while harvesting woods for future projects. I chopped through an 18cm Basswood tree in thirty seconds, ripping chunks out as if I was a Lumberjack. I checked the edge. Still sharp, but with such a soft wood that is to be expected. I went on to cut down a 50cm+ thick Black Poplar tree. These trees are tricky, though one of the softer hardwoods, they seem to be finicky to bring down. Within two minutes I had it felled. I checked the edge. Still hair shaving sharp. My eye began to twitch. Ask anyone that knows me well, and they will tell you my blades get put through their paces and I often have to treat them for their bumps and nicks. I take pride in being able to make any so-called unbreakable knife break. Though I don't believe in mistreating your tools, I like to know exactly how much abuse a tool can take. The minute I know what its' breaking point is, that is how far I know I can trust it. This thing didn't dull, and didn't struggle. Now I was just plain irritated.

(Above Photo; Getting ready to split some firewood)
(Below Photo; Single Hit makes a real nice split, the results of the above photo)

I looked around the woods for a while until one of my colleagues pointed out a pile of wood someone had cut many years before. I was well-seasoned cherry wood. This stuff is known to be full of knots when under 30cm thick. They're also one of the denser woods in the forests south of the Boreal forest. While I was alone (I didn't want witnesses to see what I was about to attempt), I arranged the cherry log how I wanted it. I lifted my arms to the heavens, both hands grasping the handle of the parang. I aimed, closed my eyes in fear (I don't advise closing your eyes while cutting wood) and swung down with enough force that even Thor would be impressed. If I had done this with a machete, I wouldn't have a machete any longer. If I had done it with my granfors axe, I would still be trying to get it out of the log. With one foul swoop I split the entire cherry log in half (well over a metre in length and well over 30cm thick). I checked the edge and cursed whoever invented this thing. Yes, it had dulled, but only by a fraction of what I was hoping. I chopped at the cherry until I reduced it all to kindling. I checked the edge once more. Now it was dull enough for me to actually require sharpening it.
This all sounds ridiculous I am sure. Why on earth would a man be angry at how his blade remains sharp? Don't we like our knives being sharp? The main reason for me, was that I needed to see how long it takes to sharpen the knife, and I can't really do that when the knife is still razor sharp, now can I? As well, it was giving me this foreboding feeling. Usually if a knife doesn't dull this quickly, it means the steel is very hard, which means the steel is both brittle and also difficult to sharpen. However, from the abuse I had given it, I knew it was not brittle. Regardless, I still expected to be there for an hour trying to return the edge to close to shaving sharp. Five minutes later I was done. To describe how flabbergasted I was by all of this is truly impossible.
The comfort and security of the handle, coupled with the balance of the overall design leaves little doubt in my mind that this knife is an incredible feat of genius, skill and talent. However, to add the durable yet easily maintained cutting edge, the strength of the entire knife, and the comfortable yet tenacious scabbard, and you now have something that cannot be explained in words of any language. Actually -maybe in one language. Among many native cultures in Canada and America, the term "Medicine" means many things; health, spiritual energy, helpful items, and power. Some of the greatest Native warriors and chiefs had "Medicine Bows", "Medicine Clubs", "Medicine Horses". Well, after over a month and a half of grueling testing, which included some of the most abusive work any knife I ever owned has experienced, I have come to a simple conclusion.. this is without any exaggeration a "Medicine Knife".
(Below Photo; The Medicine Knife)

Photos by Lucas Wagner; Canadian Bushcraft
Caleb "Oz" Musgrave is a wilderness skills instructor from Canada, who has practiced Bushcraft and Survival since childhood. Though he no longer just practices but also lives Bushcraft, he still considers himself a student of the field, and never a guru or master.
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The Alan Ainsworth Sporran
Author :: Caleb Musgrave
Date :: Wed 09/29/2010 @ 10:04
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Caleb tries out a piece of gear that has been worn by Highlanders for centuries.
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A lot of old world clothes and tools can often be seen made into more contemporary items that are just as valuable and just as functional (and sometimes more functional). From the Polish Fokos Axe, to the simple Poncho, many items are becoming very popular in the realm of Bushcraft gear, and I for one support that. The more we play with old designs, the more innovations arise, and the more our world expands. It's why I love the modern interpretations of the "Nessmuk Knife", and even hybrid canoe paddles. To add to this beautiful expanse is an artisan and bushcrafter from Australia, named Alan Ainsworth. Him and I began talking to eachother online many years ago, and I have watched his crafts go from great to incredible. Originally from Scotland, Alan's Highlander pride went with him to his new homeland in New South Wales, and his love for Bushcraft and everything outdoors never diminished.
With this new land, and his traditional skills, he began making knives as a hobby, and slowly began playing with a leather that was more common in Australia than anywhere in the Northern Hemisphere; Kangaroo. With knife sheathes, little pouches and other projects out of the way, Alan went on to show some of his Scottish artistic skills, and began making Sporrans. The classic sporran in simple terms is a pouch that hangs off of a Scottish kilt, and does the job of being a pocket, seeing as kilts are usually (and I do believe always) pocketless. Made from fur, wool, leather and other materials, there are countless "models" of sporrans out there. That being said, it was a natural choice for a transplanted Scot.
The sporran arrived within a month, and I was immediately impressed by the craftsmanship. I myself work with buckskin frequently, often making large pieces of clothing, so I can see the intricacies of most leatherwork out there. Alan's work was incredibly well done. I could tell he loved making his pieces, and this was shown clearly in the sporran. The folds were perfect and it seemed to be a perfect size for a belt pouch. When I opened the flap, I noticed the sporran opened up even more. It even had a button made from a leather turkshead knot which allowed the pouch to be opened and closed easily.
I wore the belt pouch when I went moose hunting, it hung comfortably on my belt and fit a box of ammunition, a sharpening stone, water purification tablets, my hunting license and a plethora of odds and ends. With its' wide opening I was able to easily access all items, and relied on the pouch often to store small items I came across (garbage from other people, wintergreen leaves for later, etc).
I again wore the belt pouch when I went deer hunting, and halfway through field dressing my deer I had to resharpen my knife. Bloody fingers are at first slippery and later sticky, and its' very difficult to open pouches or get items out of tight places. The turkshead knot button easily released the flap and I accessed my sharpening stone with no difficulty at all. After honing my knife back to a razor's edge I had to replace the stone back in the sporran, but with tacky fingers that was expected to be very difficult. However I again opened the pouch and easily tossed my stone inside, closing the pouch up with no effort. I was impressed later when I noticed the blood has stained the pouch but was washed off with little more than a wipe of a wet cloth. Leather usually absorbs animal fluids readily and are difficult to clean, yet the kangaroo leather was clean immediately!
A few weeks later a good friend of mine from Australia arrived for a two week vacation in the woods. I showed him what one of his countrymen made for me and he liked it greatly. I kept my survival tin and many items inside it during our two week journey in the outdoors. After the first week, it began to rain almost constantly, and for seven days straight the sporran saw more wet than dry. Yet the leather never stretched more than a millimeter anywhere. I arrived home and forgot about the pouch and other belt contents in my pack. A week later I realized my mistake and dumped out the contents. My leather belt had molded, the flint and steel kit had rusted and my tomahawk had a heavy oxidized crust as well. Yet the Sporran was in perfect condition! I simply hug it up to dry and rubbed the leather soft with my bare hands.
I wore the sporran throughout our Canadian winter on several trips to the woods and on many a course. With frigid conditions the sporran never faltered, and got high praise from students as an attractive and functional piece of equipment. I agreed with them highly and have decided to swear by an Ainsworth Sporran any day.
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Sheltercraft
Author :: Caleb Musgrave
Date :: Wed 09/29/2010 @ 10:04
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An overview of how shelter works and several choices to use in the Canadian wilds
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By Caleb "Oz" Musgrave
This article is not meant to explain how to make every shelter out there. Nor is it supposed to be used as a guide as to how to build a specific shelter. The only way to know how to truly build a shelter is to research it and then practise it, with experimentation (better known as failure and new ideas). In other words; don't think you know how to drive a car just because you read the owners' manual.
This is an overview of several types of shelters, made from both natural and man-made materials. It also is written to help explain how shelter works, to impress on the reader the basics of what is needed to make a shelter and therefore allow the reader to experiment with a bit more success.
Shelter is nothing more then an extension of clothing, in the simplest way of looking at it. It is meant to protect the human body from the five forms of hypothermia -Conduction, radiation, perspiration/precipitation, convection and respiration-, and allow the body to remain away from the elements which may harm it (heat, insects, cold, wet and so on).
Though there are shelters from all over the world which may do these jobs differently (such as a Tropical shelter), this article is going to focus on the temperate forests, specifically Carolinian and Boreal/Taiga forests. In this region, there are four seasons, spanning from thirty degrees above zero (celsius) all the way to fifty degrees below zero. Summers can be hot with swarms of blackflies and mosquitoes, whereas winter can be frididly cold, with swift winds carrying windchills that can cause severe frostbite in seconds.
There are many schools of thought when it comes to what type of shelter to use. Some preach the concept of basic shelters that can quickly be erected in dire circumstances. This would be a "survival-oriented shelter" such as a basic debris hut. Others suggest that a more complex shelter is better when comfort and space are important. This of course is the concept behind a bushcraft shelter or what is often labelled a "Long-term survival shelter". There is no point in trying to make a large shelter when you need one immediately. It will require a great deal of building materials, and take quite a lot of time to construct. Better to make a simple, small, easily heated shelter. Vice verse if you have been in the woods for a long period, a small shelter just doesn't seem adequate. After a few days of constant rain, laying down inside a small cramped shelter for the entire time will drive anyone crazy. The better choice is to make a shelter large enough to sit up in, lounge in, and perhaps even stand up (albeit bent over or crouching). This allows the occupant the chance to work on projects, stretch muscles and -if done safely- use a small fire or hot rocks to heat the inside of the shelter. In a survival situation, it is best to make a small shelter first, to have immediate protection from the elements. If the period in the woods lasts longer than three days, then a wise idea is to remain in the small shelter while a larger shelter is built. Once completed, the survivor can move into this larger "home" and not once had to spent a night exposed to the elements.
Some people suggest the use of natural materials for a shelter, while others argue that man-made materials are more effective. The arguments coem from two different concepts, though both are right and neither are wrong. Using natural shelters does away with the need of carrying shelter materials with you. Often a natural shelter will be warmer, due to thermal mass (explained later in the article), and of course, if left alone will return to nature. As well, the natural materials will blend in with the environment, allowing a less obvious presence. However, a natural shelter often takes a great deal of material to build, and if not enough material is used, will get the occupant soaked. It also takes longer -usually- to make a natural materials shelter. On the other end of the spectrum, man-made materials can be easily erected within minutes rather than hours. As well, the majority of these types of shelters are water and weatherproof. However, these shelters are rarely effective for cold weather, though there are always exceptions to the rule. As well, if you lose or damage the materials, and have no experience repairing it or cannot replace it, you are now stuck with only being able to use natural materials. Due to that, this article will discuss both natural shelters and man-made shelters.
Please remember at all times that the goal of any shelter is to prevent exposure to the elements. Here in Canada, Hypothermia is the largest concern, and due to that must be focused on when constructing a shelter. If your shelter can prevent or all-out end any threat of hypothermia, it will suffice.
Conduction -in the hypothermia sense- is when an object absorbs heat from another object. Simply put, a rock, ice or the bare ground will absorb heat from the human body and cause the body to become chilled. This can be tested by resting against a brick wall on a cold day. Though you may be out of the wind (convection), your back and buttocks will feel cold. Eventually the entire body will feel cold as well. This would obviously not be a good thing in a wilderness setting, and this is often why campers carry sleeping mats or pads with them. This will keep the ground from absorbing your body heat and chilling you. As well, cold air sinks, and due to that, the air nearest the ground will often be very cold. The air can be much warmer only a few inches from the ground. This is why a bed is often much sought after in a shelter. As well, the ground for many parts of the year will be wet. Moisture (precipitation/perspiration) will chill the body quickly, and can often effect the insulative value of many clothing fabrics. Again, a simpel bed can prevent this from happening. Some beds are easily made quickly, by laying down a thick pile of boughs, grass or any other insulative materials. The bed should be at least a metre thick when uncompressed and be at least fifteen centimetres (six inches) thick when compressed. This will often do, but sometimes the movement of the occupant will displace the materials, thinning it out and making the bed less and less comfortable throughout the night, causing sore joints, and of course exposing the body to the cold wet ground again.
(Below Photo; A student tries out a basic bough bed. Photo by Caleb Musgrave)
A better means of making the bed is to build up a frame of logs or poles. Two logs at least a shoulder width apart are laid down. Inside of this, a core of shrubbery, poles or branches is stuffed, and the basic bough bed is built on top. This "core bed" takes only a few minutes longer to set up and can last much longer. It is also more comfortable to sit and lay on, making the occupant's sleep much better. Another option is to take two logs that are half an armspan long. The space between these two logs should be long enough to allow the occupant to lay their head and foot on the logs. Now long, wrist thick poles are set across these logs, resembling a primitive bench. This bed acts similar to a box-spring, and due to being hollow offers storage space and even room for hot rocks to heat the occupant from below. Often called the platform bed, this is probably the most advanced of wilderness beds out there for long-term living.
Another option is to dig a trench twenty centimetres deep, and hip-to-shoulder long. Build a fire within this and let it burn for at least two hours. Once it has been effectively burned and all of the woods has burned down to coals, break the coals into small pieces and cover with at least ten centimetres of dirt. Pack the dirt tight and check to make sure no heat has come through yet. Every few minutes check with your hand to see if the ground has warmed yet. If it warms up before twenty minutes, place more dirt on it. After twenty minutes, the heat will slowly come out, and offer the occupant a source of warmth, cancelling out the worry of conduction from the ground. The heat will have baked out a great deal of the moisture in the ground, though a vapour barrier is wise. A basic bough bed can be built atop of this, or the occupant can sleep on the "fire bed" directly.
Once the bed has been made, shelter from the elements can be made by a roof and walls. In cold weather, a fire can be included with an open-front shelter such as a lean-to, or body heat can be trapped inside a shelter that is made of materials which have a great deal of thermal mass. What is thermal mass? In simple terms, thermal mass is basically insulation. This can be achieved with leaf litter, boughs, and logs and even dirt. The thicker the walls and roof of a shelter are, the less cold and weather can penetrate through. As well, the thicker the walls and roof, the more heat is kept inside. This is the basic principle of thermal mass and the basic principle behind the debris hut.
A debris hut is a framework of sticks and poles, with a cover of leaf litter, moss or other forest refuse (debris) which is thickly piled up. A minimum thickness of the debris cover should be an arm length. However, in colder weather the cover should be at least an arm length and a half. The thicker the cover the warmer it will be insde. The most well known debris hut is the A-frame. Simply a tripod with one extra long leg, and covered with sticks, shrubbery and debris, this shelter is nothing more than a glorified sleeping bag. However in survival circumstances, this is the most effective and efficient means of staying warm and dry. This shelter can be made small enough for one person or large enough to shelter four people. The long leg of the tripod is the main body of the shelter, whereas the two shorter legs form the entrance. The door can be left open to recieve heat from a fire, or closed off.
(Below Photo; A three person A-frame Debris Hut showing the entranceway to the shelter. Photo by Caleb Musgrave)

The A-frame debris hut can be advanced however to offer better luxury for a lone occupant or made to shelter seven or eight occupants. A large A-frame shelter is made, large enough to shelter three or four people. Once this frame is completed, another A-frame shelter, whose entrance is facing the first shelters' entrance is connected to it. The two entrances will be joined and walled off so that no weather can effect the shelter. A small entranceway can be made perpendicular to the length of the shelter. In this way, a large shelter can be made to fend off all of the elements, yet leave enough room for one or two people to live comfortably within it. The space between the two A-frames should be cleared and slightly dug down. This can be left as is to "trap" cold air before it gets to the occupants. Or, if the occupants wish for more warmth, hot rocks can be carefully place within the cold air trap, to radiate more warmth within the debris hut.
(Below Photo; Author and two students outside of an Advanced Debris Hut which the students spent 7 days living out of. Note the side entrance. Photo by Ciara Pisano)

Another debris hut design is actuallt more often known about from the Southwestern United States of American. The wickiup is a tepee or arch-dome shelter covered with grass thatch or leaf litter. If thickly covered enough with debris, the wickiup is now "winterized" and transformed into a "Northern Wickiup". The easiest manner of constructing the wickiup is to make a tripod out of sturdy poles. Add more poles until a tepee frame has been made. A small entrance-way is left open, while the rest of the frame is continually piled on with more poles, branches, shrubbery and other dense materials. Once a solid frame has been made, piles upon piles of leaf litter are covered over the entire frame. Make the walls thick with debris until the entire frame looks like a huge leaf pile. The entrance-way can be closed off with a woven door, a "plug" made from a large pile of leaves, or left open and heated with a fire from outside. The Northern Wickiup is efficient at shedding rain, and due to it's conical form is very strong, being able to withstand hundreds of pounds of snow on it. The space inside allows the occupant to sit up, lay down, stretch and do anything else needed for comfort.

(Above Photo; Author with a Northern Wickiup Phot by John Brown)
(Below Photo; Author and students with a Lean-to. Note the use of the "platform bed" as a bench. Photo by John Brown)

Almost all survival and wilderness skills texts discuss the Lean-to. A ridgepole is suspended between two trees or two tripods. Down one side several poles are laid at a forty-five degree angle or steeper. Atop of this, boughs, thatching, tarpaulins or simply more and more poles are covered. Debris can also be used. In front of this, a fire is made, and a bed made inside. The lean-to roof sheds the majority of the weather, while also reflecting the radiant heat of the fire back to the student. A platform bed can be added to the construction of the lean-to to create an efficient sleeping arrangement. The downfall to this shelter focuses primarily on the fact that if any weather that does come through changes direction, the occupant is exposed to it. As well, the majority of the heat will escape by simply following the lean-to roof upwards. However, if modern materials are included, the lean-to can be extremely versatile. A simple poncho or tarpaulin strung up like a lean-to can be set up in as little as three minutes. If the tarpaulin is actually a Mylar space tarp, any body heat or radiant heat from the fire will reflect back onto the occupant.
A similar design to the lean-to is a simple windbreak or reflector log shelter. Often the occupant is exposed to any precipitation that may fall, as well, most of the heat of the occupant can be lost (via radiation). However, if the occupant is wearing efficient rainproof clothing, and has a large fire in front of them, the Windbreak shelter can be effective enough. Simple logs stacked one ontop of another, and chinked with dirt, stones and/or leaf litter, the wall can shed some of the harshest winds, which could chill the occupant to death (via convection).

(Above Photo; The Windbreak/Reflector Log Shelter with fire and firewall. Photo by Chris Caine)
(Below Photo; Close view of the bed in the Windbreak/Reflector Log shelter. Phot by Chris Caine)
Arch Dome shelters are probably one of the most comfortable dwellings in the wilderness. Ironically they are also one of the most difficult to find appropriate coverings for. Made by implanting the thick ends of saplings into the ground and bending them -two at a time- into arches. Two saplings lashed or woven together at their apex will make a sturdy arch. From this, a circular or lengthened shelter can be contructed. Repeat the arch, making at least eight arches (either all in a row like a tunnel, or in a circle like a dome). Starting at the bottom, and working upwards, horzontal poles are woven in and out either pushing or pulling the vertical arches until the entire frame is a balanced and equal shape. This sounds like a perfectionist, but the better shaped the frame is, the more effective it will be at shedding rain and resisting the weather.
(Below Photo; Author with a small arch dome shelter. Photo by Tammie Adams)
A short time after gathering the poles, this frame can be completed (two hours for a large shelter, less than an hour for a smaller shelter). The real challenge will be trying to cover it. Woven mats, made from long grass, reed or cattails (typha) can be used. Thatching the dome shelter with similar materials can also work. However, both of these methods are only good for the sides of the arch dome. Past sixty degrees incline, any rainfall will penetrate the thatching effortlessly, leaving the occupants drenched. Shingles made from bark, split cedar shingles (easiest wood to split in the Canadian woods) or strips of animal skins can be attached on the top of the arch dome shelter. These materials will shed rain much better. If bark is in great quantity covering the entire arch dome shelter can make the dwelling effectively rainproof. Other than birchbark however, the bark shingles will not be long-term solutions for roofing. Ojibway, Micmaq and Ottawa natives made wigwams using this process, and later traded for canvas, muslin and other fabrics to cover their lodges.
Covering this frame with modern tarpaulins allows for a great deal of water protection. Parachute nylon can be laid over the poles prior to placing the tarpaulins on. This helps to cut down on condensation (the nylon wicks away water vapour). An elevated platform bed inside of this shelter can increase on the comfort. Lining the ceiling of the shelter with a mylar space tarp, the body heat will continue to reflect back down to the occupant. The door can be simply the rest of the tarp that is covering the roof, or a clear plastic tarp. Clear plastic allows radiant heat to pass through, whether this may be from a fire or from the sun. However, wind, rain, smoke and insects cannot pass through it. Setting up this shelter with a large fire a metre away from the entrance can then heat the shelter; making the inside of the shelter very warm even in sub-zero temperatures. This design of a shelter is basically the perfect blend of natural materials (platform bed, arched poles, etc) with modern materials (tarpaulin, clear plastic, parachute nylon, etc) allowing the occupant to live in almost lavish comfort. This design was originally developed by Canadian wilderness expert Mors Kochanski, and is often known as the "Kochanski Super Shelter".

(Above Photo; Inside of a Kochanski super shelter which the author lived in for several weeks straight)
To help with any of these shelter designs, there are always modifications which can better the shelter for the specific occupant. Each person is made differently and due to that their comfort levels may be different. Remember; in a survival situation comfort should be the last thing on the survivor's mind. However, in a long-term wilderness living setting a good nights' sleep can be invaluable to your longevity. Research the terrain in which one would be living off the land, and begin experimenting with shelters. Being both educational and enjoyable.

(Above Photo; The End)
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